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ON   THE   ACTION 


OF 


EXAMINATIONS 


CONSIDERED  AS   A  MEANS  OF  SELECTION. 


HENRY    LATHAM,    M.A. 

FELLOW   AND  TUTOR  OF  TRINITY   HALL,    CAMBRIDGK. 


CAMBRIDGE: 

DEIGHTON,    BELL    AND    CO. 

LONDON:    GEORGE   BELL  AND   SONS. 

1877 

[All  Kighls  reserved.^ 


PRINTED    BY    C.    J.    CLAY,    M.A. 
AT    THE    UNIVERSITY    PRESS. 


5  36  7 


PREFACE. 

My  chief  object  in  writing  this  book  has  been  to 
introduce  some  approach  to  method  in  the  way 
of  recrardins:  the  action  of  Examinations.  This 
action  is  complex,  and  from  want  of  analysis  con- 
fusion has  sometimes  arisen,  as  I  have  pointed 
out  at  the  beginning  of  Chapter  v.  I  must  warn 
the  reader  that  this  book  is  not  intended  as  a 
manual  of  the  art  of  examining,  but  as  an  enquiry 
as  to  what  we  want  to  effect  by  Examinations 
and  how  far  we  can  succeed.  The  art  of  exa- 
mining has  made  great  progress  of  late.  Govern- 
ment as  well  as  University  Examinations  are 
now  conducted  with  great  skill,  and  we  owe  to 
the  former  various  valuable  expedients  in  the 
way   of  marking,    allowing  alternative  questions, 

810318 


iv  Pi'eface. 

and  the  like,  to  which  I  have  referred  in  Chap,  ix, 
on  "  Marking  and  Classing." 

I  should  have  spoken  more  particularly  than 
I  have  done  of  the  Examination  for  Selection  for 
Indian  Civil  Service  appointments,  had  not  a 
change  in  the  Regulations  as  to  age  been  an- 
nounced while  this  book  was  in  progress,  which 
will  require  a  fresh  plan  of  Examination. 

The  changes  in  the  mode  of  setting  and  mark- 
ing the  papers  which  have  been  made  from  time 
to  time  have  remedied  many  of  the  evils  which 
existed  when  I  began  to  write.  Half  of  the 
Selected  Candidates  may  be  considered  to  take 
their  stand  on  subjects  which  result  in  a  practical 
power,  like  Classics  or  Mathematics,  and  if  this 
power  is  attained  there  can  be  little  fault  to  find 
with  the  teaching,  wherever  it  be  got.  With 
those,  however,  who  only  just  succeed,  and  with 
the  many  who  fail,  the  educational  effects  are  still 
undesirable.  A  weak  man,  under  the  paramount 
necessity  of  getting  1200  marks,  must  "take  up" 
what  yields  an  immediate  return,  though  the 
diversity  may  be  distracting  to  him,  and  his  mental 
])uild  may  be  such  that  he  should  beware  of  over- 
loading his  memory. 

Selection  by  competitive  Examinations  has 
many  advantages,  but  it  is  open  to  one  deep-lying 


Preface.  v 

objection.  In  the  proper  education  of  youth  for 
active  careers,  such  as  is  received  at  a  good 
school,  instruction  and  acquirement  are  much,  but 
very  far  from  all,  while  for  a  competitive  Exami- 
nation they  are  everything".  The  boy,  to  obtain 
the  full  good  out  of  a  healthy  school-life,  besides 
getting  knowledge,  ought  to  grow  in  character, 
to  gain  the  power  "of  doing  the  thing  he  would" 
and  of  "  crettinof  on"  with  other  human  beincrs  in 
various  relations.  No  one  expects  Examinations 
to  test  this,  but  we  look  to  find  a  fair  share  of 
these  qualities  in  our  candidates  in  addition  to  the 
acquirements  actually  tested.  But  the  Examina- 
tion may  lead  to  a  system  of  training  which 
checks  the  growth  of  those  qualities  which  we 
hoped  our  selected  candidates  would  possess  as 
largely  as  other  people.  Boys  taken  out  of  school- 1 
life  at  fifteen,  and  stimulated  by  a  morbid  con- 
centration of  interest  on  one  point,  do  not  expand 
symmetrically — they  have  become  learners  and 
nothing  else.  Now  we  particularly  want  genial 
and  harmoniously  developed  young  men,  and  this 
we  can  only  get  by  ensuring  a  genial  education. 
The  difficulties  in  England  in  the  w^ay  of  giving 
a  preference  to  certain  modes  of  education  are 
great.  The  most  practicable  course  which  I  see 
is,  to  adopt  a  system  of  sifliug  the  candidates  by 


vi  Preface. 

distinctions  which   should  have  been  previously 
gained  in  School,  in  Local  Examinations,  or  in 
those  of  the  First  Year  at  a  University:  money  is 
now  wasted  by  parents  on  the  preparation  of  youths 
whose   case    is   hopeless.     Certain    shortcomings 
have  been  remarked  in  the  Selected  Candidates 
which   are  such  as  v^^ould  arise  from  the   cause 
just  indicated,  and   it  has  been   proposed  to  in- 
duce them  to  resort  to  a  University  after  being 
selected.     During  this    time   they   would   be   so 
engaged  in  their  Oriental  studies  that  they  would 
be  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  University.   They 
might  possibly  gain  "social  advantages,"  though 
if  they  felt  themselves  specially  sent  to  look  for 
them  they  would  be  less  likely  to  find  them.     If 
at  the  age  of  1 7  or  18  they  could  reside  for  a  year 
at  a  University,  aiming  at  the  Class  in  the  annual 
Examinations  which  should  entitle  them  to  com- 
pete for  Selection,  they  would  then  become  genu- 
ine partakers  in  University  life,  they  would  enter 
into  the  University  spirit,  and,  if  selected,  after 
the  two  subsequent  years  of  technical  studies  they 
might  be   enabled    in   proper   course   to   take  a 
University  degree  (see  Appendix  C). 

I  had  to  consider  whether  I  should  conceive 
myself  as  addressing  professional  readers  only,  in 
which  case  much  explanation  could  be  spared,  or 


I 


Preface.  vii 

as  addressing  a  wider  circle.  I  have  adopted  the 
latter  course,  because  society  is  now  generally- 
interested  in  Examinations,  and  it  is  desirable 
that  their  action  and  the  value  of  their  results 
should  be  properly  understood.  When  too  much 
value  is  attached  to  a  place  in  an  Examination  list, 
candidates  are  rendered  morbidly  anxious  by  their 
fear  of  disappointing  their  friends,  and  teachers  are 
forced,  for  their  credit,  to  convey  something  that 
can  be  displayed  in  an  Examination,  even  though, 
as  is  especially  the  case  with  young  boys,  the 
proper  course  of  teaching  must  be  interfered  with 
to  effect  this  object.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
the  verdict  of  Examinations  is  slighted,  as  has 
happened  sometimes  since  the  reaction  against 
them  began,  young  people  harden  themselves 
against  the  rightful  punishment  of  their  inatten- 
tion by  disparaging  the  instrument  which  reveals 
their  deficiencies.  The  more  just  and  discrimi- 
nating public  opinion  becomes  on  these  points, 
and  the  better  it  is  understood  what  the  decision 
of  an  Examination  is  worth,  the  less  disturbing 
the  action  of  Examinations  will  be. 

This  book  has  been  long  in  hand,  and  owing 
to  my  College  engagements  it  has  been  very 
interruptedly  pursued;  indeed  a  portion  of  it  has 
been  in  print  for  some  time.     I    fear   that  some 

b2 


vlii  Preface. 

repetition  may  occur  from  this  cause,  but  I  have 
now  and  then  designedly  repeated  a  remark  rather 
than  weary  the  reader  with  constant  references. 
Besides,  some  readers  may  only  want  to  refer  to 
a  single  chapter.  I  have  found  it  one  of  the 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  putting  this  subject  into 
shape,  that  many  of  the  things  that  had  to  be 
said  might  be  introduced  equally  well  under 
several  heads.  The  subject  does  not  supply  a 
natural  order  in  the  mode  of  dealing  with  it. 

I  had  originally  intended,  instead  of  confining 
myself  mainly  to  the  action  of  Examinations  as 
a  means  of  Selection,  to  consider  them  also  as  ap- 
pliances in  Education,  but  I  found  that  the  book 
grew  in  size,  and  that  circumstances  made  It  de- 
sirable that  It  should  appear  at  once :  I  hope 
however  to  pursue  the  subject  hereafter.  I  have 
only  touched  slightly  here  on  Pass  Examinations, 
because  they  serve  but  little  as  tests.  They  affect 
education  widely,  and  call  for  thorough  considera- 
tion from  this  point  of  view. 

The  historical  portion  of  my  book  is  sub- 
servient to  my  main  object.  I  have  related  the 
growth  of  our  Mathematical  Tripos  at  Cambridge 
In  order  to  Illustrate  the  working  of  the  prin- 
ciples I  wanted  to  make  clear.  I  have  acknow- 
ledged my  obligations  to  my  authorities,  I  believe, 


Preface.  ix 

from  time  to  time  in  my  notes ;  but  I  must  here 
mention  specially  the  assistance  I  have  derived 
from  Dr  Whewell's  books  on  Education,  from  Dr 
Peacock's  work  on  the  Statutes  of  the  University, 
from  certain  tracts  on  University  matters  in  the 
works  of  Dr  Jebb,  who  was  Tutor  of  St  Peter's 
College  about  a  century  ago,  and,  in  my  third 
Chapter  especially,  to  Mr  MulHnger's  Histoj'y  of 
the  University  of  Cambridge.  I  find  that  I  was 
misled  in  attributing  the  story  of  "  Ego  currit " 
passing  for  grammar  among  students  of  the 
middle  ages — to  Roger  Bacon  (p.  137).  My  friend 
Mr  Luard,  the  Registrary  of  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  has  pointed  it  out  to  me  in  the 
Annals  of  Osjiey,  in  the  4th  Vol.  of  Annalcs 
Monastici,  published  by  the  Master  of  the  Rolls. 

Like  most  persons  engaged  in  Education,  I 
am  under  the  deepest  obligation  to  Dr  Carpenter 
for  the  instruction  derived  from  his  excellent  work 
on  Mental  Physiology;  and  I  am  also  much 
indebted  to  the  Dean  of  Lincoln,  to  Mr  Henry 
Sidgwick,  to  Mr  Sayce,  to  Mr  Wilson  of  Rugby, 
as  well  as  to  various  writers  in  the  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Education,  for  valuable  information 
and  suggestions. 

I  have  made  larre  use  of  the  Evidence  iriven 
to  the  University  Commissions  of  1S54 — 60,  and 


X  Preface. 

I  have  thouQ^ht  it  so  desirable  that  the  views  of 
the  Royal  Commission  on  Scientific  Instruction 
and  the  advancement  of  Science,  should  be  ac- 
cessible to  my  readers,  that  I  have  given  large 
extracts  from  their  Third  Report,  issued  in  1873, 
in  the  form  of  an  Appendix. 


Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge, 
August,   1877. 


CONTENTS, 


CHAPTER  I. 

IXTRODUCTORY. 

Spread  of  the  Examination  system.  Its  effects,  p.  i.  Two  pur- 
poses of  Examinations,  Selection  and  Education,  p.  3.  Liberal 
and  Technical  Education,  page  5.  "  Cramming,"  p.  7.  Ex- 
aminations may  be  subordinate  to  teaching,  or  teaching  to 
Examinations,  p.  11.  Subjects  may  be  ill  suited  for  Exami- 
nation yet  cannot  be  omitted,  p.  13.  Examinations  called  into 
use  by  present  circumstances,  p.  16.  They  may  be  good  for 
youths,  but  bad  for  men,  p.  19.  Neglect  of  their  educational 
effects,  jj.  20.   Reaction  against  them,  often  unreasonable,  p.  21. 

CHAPTER   11. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  ACTION  OF  EXAMINATIONS. 

Competitive  Examinations  do  for  the  young  what  the  struggle  of 
life  does  for  older  persons,  p.  26.  Two  objects  in  Education,  to 
form  the  mind  and  to  fill  it,  p.  29.  Qualifying  Examinations 
supply  the  place  of  authority,  p.  31.  Need  of  stimulants  im- 
plies imperfection,  p.  32.  An  important  Examination  calls  for 
effort,  p.  35.  Good  moral  effect  of  making  one  or  two  great 
efforts,  p.  })S.  Use  of  Examinations  for  dispensing  patronage, 
p.  40.  Advantageous  for  the  lower  appointments,  p.  43.  Of 
mixed  effect  when  used  for  the  higher  ones,  p.  45.  Compulsory 
Examinations  required  under  existing  circumstances,  p.  49, 
Difficulties,  p.  52,  The  way  to  get  marks  may  not  be  the 
way  to  profit  by  learning,  p.  53,  "Free  work,"  its  moral  value, 
p.  55.    Parental  indulgence  makes  Examinations  more  needed, 


xil  Contents. 


p.  56.  The  like  case  in  France,  and  in  Germany,  p.  61.  Com- 
pulsory Military  Service  an  aid  to  the  School-master,  p.  63. 
Independence  of  German  teachers  greater  than  that  of  French 
ones,  p.  64.  Inducements  to  high  cultivation  in  England, 
p.  67.  Illustration  from  Cattle  Show,  p.  71.  Part  of  the  pay 
of  the  Indian  Civil  Servants  goes  to  the  teacher,  p.  72. 
Essay  writing  as  a  mode  of  Examination  (see  also  Chap,  vi.), 
P-75- 

CHAPTER   III. 

HISTORICAL  NOTICES.     DISPUTATIONS. 

State  of  things  in  Europe  when  Universities  arose,  p.  'jj.  Univer- 
sity of  Bologna,  p.  81  ;  of  Paris,  83.  College  system  at  Paris, 
p.  84.  Technical  sense  of  word  "Arts"  important,  p.  84. 
Two  classes  of  subjects,  those  which  enable  a  man  to  do  some- 
thing answer  to  "Arts,"  those  which  only  supply  knowledge 
to  "Sciences,"  in  old  sense  of  the  words,  p.  86,  Disputation 
system  gave  a  conventional  form  to  study,  p.  Qi-  First  teach- 
ing at  Universities  not  Professorial,  but  a  system  of  mutual 
instruction,  p.  92.  Institution  of  Degrees,  p.  93.  They  im- 
plied always  a  right  to  teach,  p.  93.  Disputation  offered  a 
field  for  distinction,  p.  97.  The  number  of  students  at  Univer- 
sities, p.  100.  Effect  of  B.A.  Degree  being  generally  sought 
for,  p.  102.  Public  interest  in  disputations,  p.  104.  They 
threw  all  learning  into  a  dialectic  form ;  effects  of  this,  p.  106. 
They  kept  authority  before  men's  minds  too  much,  p.  110. 
Change  produced  by  Reformation  in  subjects  of  Disputations 
not  in  \h€ix  for7n,  p.  114.  Decline  of  knowledge  of  Latin, 
p.  117.  Rise  of  Physical  Science,  stage  in  which  it  could  be 
used,  for  Disputations,  p.  119.  Abolition  of  Disputations  in 
England,  p.  120. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

THE   CAMBRIDGE  MATHEMATICAL    TRIIOS. 

Mathematical  Tripos  ;  why  chosen  as  an  Example  of  Examination 
action,  p.  123.     Definition  of  the  term   Competitive,  p.   124. 


Contents.  xili 


How  an  Order  of  Merit  came  to  be  adopted,  p.  125.  What 
facilitated  this,  p.  126.  Name  of  "Tripos,"  p.  128.  Mode  of 
proceeding  on  "Tripos"  Day,  p.  129.  Date  of  Tripos  List, 
p.  133.  Proceedings  for  B.A.  Degree  a  century  ago,  p.  134. 
Fellowships  came  to  be  given  by  the  Tripos ;  importance  of 
this,  p.  140.  Complaints  of  neglect  of  lower  subjects,  p.  143. 
Grace  of  1779,  p.  144.  Contest  between  the  two  objects,  Selec- 
tion and  Education,  p.  148.  Regulations  of  1837,  which  came 
into  operation  in  1839,  p.  149.  Mathematical  Tripos  in  its 
complete  form,  p.  151.  Use  in  extinguishing  jobbery,  p.  152. 
Old  "  Cambridge  Tripos"  contrasted  with  the  "  Mathematical 
Tripos,"  p.  154.  Great  names,  p.  158.  Excessive  influence  of 
Tripos,  p.  162.  Teaching  adapted  to  Examinations,  p.  163. 
Private  tuition  and  Mr  William  Hopkins,  p.  165.  Objections 
to  private  tuition,  p.  168.  Need  for  it  in  Mathematics  at  the 
time,  p.  171.  Analytical  and  Synthetical  methods,  p.  172. 
What  Mathematics  are  taught /tr,  p.  176.  Objects  different 
with  able  students  and  weak  ones,  p.  178.  Viva  voce  Exami- 
nations, p.  179.  Regulations  of  1848,  p.  181.  Universities, 
seats  of  learning  and  places  of  education,  p.  183.  Educational 
interest  and  scientific  interest,  p.  184.  Scheme  of  1873;  a 
liberal  education  combined  with  a  technically  scientific  one, 
p.  186.  Evils  of  great  extent  of  course,  p.  1S8.  Proposals  to 
divide  it  into  two,  viz.  an  educational  Examination  con- 
taining the  subjects  most  fit  for  training,  and  a  scientific  one 
comprising  those  wanted  for  research,  p.  190.  Nature  of  the 
higher  Examination,  viva  voce,  p.  193.  Conclusion.  Evidence 
of  Mr  W.  Hopkins,  p.  196. 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  FUNCTIOXS  OF  EXAMINATIONS.     SELECTION 
[on  score  of  ability). 

First  thing  to  settle,  what  do  we  want  our  scheme  to  do  ?  How  far 
can  Examinations  effect  it?  p.  199.  Examinations  used  for 
selection  affect  education  and  vice  versa,  p.  201.  Competition, 
how  justified,  p,  203,  Parcelling  out  of  the  subject,  p.  204. 
We  may  want  to  use  the  man  or  his  knowledge,  p.  205.    Know  - 


xlv  Contents^ 


ledge  and  ability  are  blended,  p.  206.  Indian  Examinations 
used  as  an  illustration,  p.  210.  Case  taken,  the  finding  of  the 
ablest  man,  p.  212.  What  do  we  mean  by  ability,  p.  216. 
Constituents  of  the  ability  recognized  by  Examination,  p.  218. 
Special  skill  required  to  gauge  ability,  p.  219.  Volitional  and 
automatic  actions,  p.  220.  Memory.  Its  varieties.  Portative, 
Analytical,  Assimilative  and  Index  Memory',  p.  223.  "  Cram," 
p.  229.  Analytical  Memory,  p.  230.  Set  Subjects,  p.  23;. 
Difficulty  attaching  to  them  in  competition,  p.  232.  Use  of 
Educational  Examinations  as  sifters  for  Selection  ;  value  of 
Set  subjects,  danger  of  "  Cram,"  p.  235.  There  is  a  change  in 
the  kind  of  merit  as  well  as  in  the  degree,  p.  237.  Assimilated 
knowledge  the  proper  field  for  competition,  p.  239.  Subjects 
which  yield  an  "  Art "  and  those  which  only  furnish  informa- 
tion, p.  241.  The  former  best  for  our  purpose,  p.  242.  Students 
reach  a  tertninal  excellence  in  them,  p.  243.  Criterion  of 
mental  power,  p.  245.  Minds  differ  in  receptivity  of  impres- 
sions, p.  246.  Able  men  lay  hold  of  the  niceties  which  others 
miss,  p.  247.  This  comes  out  in  Examination,  p.  248.  Mental 
field  of  view,  p.  249.  Imagination,  p.  251.  Volitional  and 
automatic,  p.  252.  Extract  from  evidence  of  Mr  R.  L.  Ellis, 
p.  254.  Dramatic  power  not  tested  by  Examinations,  p.  256. 
Fertility  of  mind,  p.  257.  How  to  be  discovered,  p.  260. 
Essay  Writing,  p.  261.  Essays  shew  (i)  what  a  man  has  to 
say ;  (2)  how  he  can  say  it,  p.  262.  We  may  be  misled  by 
"  original  views,"  p.  263.  How  Essays  may  best  be  used, 
p.  265.  Cases  of  exceptional  action,  some  persons  too  honest  to 
make  believe,  p.  266.  Over  fertile  in  thoughts,  p.  269.  Diffi- 
culties that  come  of  special  preparation,  p.  271.  Style,  p.  272. 
What  the  English  Essay  effects,  p.  275 — 279.  Limitation  of 
time,  p.  280.  Essays  written  with  ample  time  and  with  access 
to  authorities  often  afford  the  best  kind  of  Examination  for 
the  older  class  of  students,  p.  287.  Reasoning  power,  p.  288. 
Problems  not  an  unfailing  test  of  cleverness,  p.  290.  How  to 
detect  simulated  knowledge,  p.  293.  Moral  science  and  kin- 
dred subjects  present  greater  difficulties,  p.  294.  To  judge  of 
ability  we  must  not  be  bound  to  award  marks  for  all  that  is 
correct,  p.  299.  What  Examinations  cannot  tell  us,  p.  300. 
As,  power  of  dealing  with  men,  p,  301.    Taste  for  research, 


Contents,  xv 


p.  302.  How  to  judge  of  progressive  condition,  p.  305.  Evil  of 
specialising  study  overmuch,  p.  307.  In  what  subjects  does 
excellence  shew  most  ability,  and  why?,  p.  309.  Mathematics, 
Classics,  Law,  History,  and  Moral  and  Natural  Science  con- 
sidered, p.  310.  A  subject  to  be  effective  must  admit  of  a 
definite  right  and  wrong,  p.  313  ;  and  depend  on  principles 
rather  than  on  instances,  p.  315.  To  do  well  in  any  good  Exami- 
nation shews  a  certain  power,  p.  316.  Classification  of  studies 
according  to  interest  in  men,  objects,  or  abstractiotis,  p.  318. 
Studies  should  supplement  one  another  in  these  respects, 
p.  320.  We  cannot  place  men  in  order  of  ability,  p.  321.  Great 
plateau  of  mediocrity,  p.  322.  Intermixture  of  effects,  p.  323. 
We  must  not  conclude  that  one  who  does  not  distinguish  him- 
self will  not  do  well  in  life,  p.  325.  We  might  learn  from  Uni- 
versity Statistics  how  far  distinction  in  life  had  gone  with  that 
obtained  in  various  kinds  of  study,  p.  327. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

EXAMINATIONS  AS  A    TEST  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

First  use  of  Examinations  was  to  ascertain  knowledge,  p.  110. 
Such  Examinations  appended  to  courses  of  apprenticeship, 
p.  331.  Pupils  were  obliged  to  spend  a  certain  time  in  learning; 
this  some  guarantee  that  the  knowledge  would  last,  p.  333. 
Professional  Examinations ;  students  want  to  learn,  and  their 
knowledge  is  kept  up,  p.  334.  Three  points  to  be  ascertained 
as  regards  knowledge,  p.  338.  I.  Compass  of  the  knowledge. 
Contrast  between  subjects  which  result  in  a  faculty  of  doing 
something,  and  those  which  only  furnish  knowledge,  p.  339. 
Subjects  ;  mostly  contain  principles  and  facts,  p.  342.  In 
History,  framework  of  events  answers  to  a  principle,  p.  344. 
Moderate  knowledge  of  Experimental  Science,  p.  347.  Its 
value  for  educational  purposes,  p.  348.  II.  Different  sorts 
of  knowledge,  p.  349.  Knowledge  may  be  serviceable,  or 
only  educational,  or  wholly  artificial,  p.  352.  Educational  or 
Student-knowledge,  p.  353.  In  Mathematics,  p.  356.  In 
Historical  Subjects,  p.  357.  Artificial  knowledge,  p.  358. 
English  Literature,  p.  360.     III.     Permanency  of  the  know- 


xvi  Contents. 


ledge,  p.  363.  "Art"  subjects,  p.  364.  Information  subjects, 
p.  365.  Conditions  favourable  for  remembering  what  is  learnt, 
p.  366.  The  matter  must  make  a  strong  impression,  p.  366. 
Should  be  frequently  recalled,  p.  367.  Must  not  be  dismissed 
as  done  with,  p.  367.  It  must  form  a  whole,  p.  368.  Must  be 
compacted  together  by  principles,  p.  370.  Review  of  conclu- 
sions, p.  372.  Modern  Languages  acquired  for  use,  not  for 
training,  p.  374.  Ill  adapted  for  competition,  p.  375.  Advan- 
tage of  foreign  education,  p,  376.  Mode  of  dealing  with 
the  difficulty,  p.  yiT-  Small  need  of  actual  knowledge  in 
business  of  life,  p.  378.  Advantages  of  Examinations  at- 
tached to  a  course,  p.  380.  How  are  different  kinds  of  know- 
ledge to  be  valued?  p.  381.  Some  are  at  the  end  of  a  ladder  of 
learning,  p.  382.  Length  of  time  required  for  learning,  p.  383. 
Relative  ability,  p.  385.  When  certain  knowledge  is  a  sitie  qjia 
noil  it  should  be  exacted  in  a  qualifying  Examination,  p.  387, 
Effect  of  over  marking  or  under  marking  a  subject,  p.  390. 
Pass  or  Qualifjdng  Examinations,  p.  393.  Are  for  the  rich 
what  the  School  Board  is  for  the  poor,  p.  394.  They  mainly 
afford  training,  but  a  residuum  remains,  p.  395.  "  Set  subjects" 
in  languages,  useless  as  criteria  of  knowledge  of  language, 
p.  397.  Translation  of  "  unseen  passages,"  needed  in  language 
Examinations;  Dictionary  may  be  allowed,  p.  398.  Value  of 
education  for  weak  men  lies  less  in  acquirement  than  in 
formation  of  habits,  p.  400.  Review  of  results  of  Chapter, 
p.  401.  When  we  want  to  know  What^  and  when  How  a 
man  has  learned,  p.  402.  Practical  conclusions,  p.  403.  Ex- 
aminations subordinated  to  teaching  may  effect  what  we  need 
in  the  way  of  selection,  p.  403.  Competitions  should  not  be 
imposed  after  twenty-two  years  of  age,  p.  404. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PRIZE  EMOLUMENTS  IN  EDUCATION. 

Motives  for  study,  p.  406.  Highest  kind  of  cultivation  not  directly 
remunerative,  p.  408.  Endowments  which  foster  education  not 
eleemosynary,  because  society  gets  a  qicid  pro  quo,  p.  410. 


Contents.  xvli 


Application  of  endowments  to  cheapen  Professional  education, 
p.  412.  Fellowships  at  present  the  mainspring  of  our  Higher 
Education,  p.  413.  The  Examinations  which  lead  to  them 
control  Education,  p.  414.  If  they  aim  only  at  picking  out  the 
cleverest  men  they  may  be  mischievous,  p.  415.  The  contrast 
between  "Open  Examinations"  for  Scholarships  at  College 
and  School  Examinations,  p.  418.  How  far  can  Examinations 
framed  with  an  educational  view  be  used  for  selection  ?  p.  420. 
School  or  University  Examinations  should  be  used  to  sift  the 
candidates  for  Government  posts,  p.  423. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

EXAMINATIONS  FOR   COLLEGE  FELLOWSHIPS  AND 
SCHOLARSHIPS. 

Functions  fulfilled  by  Fellowships  :  (i)  They  recompense  stu- 
dents. (2)  They  ser\-e  as  "  ladders  "  for  poor  men  to  rise  by. 
(3)  They  serve  as  part  payment  of  teachers.  (4)  The  Fellows 
form  the  Governing  Body  of  the  College,  p.  424.  These  func- 
tions may  be  incongruous,  and  should  be  assigned  to  different 
classes  of  Fellowships,  p.  426.  Historical  sketch  of  Fellow- 
ships, p.  427.  Modes  of  electing  Fellows,  p.  429.  By  Open 
Special  Examinations,  or  by  University  Examinations,  p.  430, 
Objections  to  both  systems,  p.  432.  Plan  proposed.  Leading 
objects  with  a  College,  to  induce  able  young  men  to  pursue  the 
higher  studies,  and  to  obtain  a  good  Governing  Body,  p.  435. 
Prize  Studentships  as  pure  Rewards,  p.  436.  Fellowships  should 
be  endowments  of  College  offices  or  of  proved  distinction.  The 
Fellows  should  form  the  Governing  Body,  p.  437.  Professional 
training  needs  less  encouragement  than  liberal  study,  p.  440, 
Mischief  of  making  University  distinction  of  excessive  import- 
ance, p.  442.  Studentships  might  be  given  by  this  criterion, 
but  not  Fellowships,  p.  443.  University  educational  Examina- 
tions, proposed  plan,  p.  444.  Further  examination  for  those 
who  intend  to  pursue  science  or  literature  as  a  vocation,  p.  445. 
Proportion  of  funds  to  be  spent  in  rewards  and  in  providing 
teaching,  p.  446.     Love  of  learning  "  for  its  own  sake,"  p.  450. 


xviii  Contents. 


How  our  Fellowships  act,  p.  452.  How  the  problems  before 
us  are  met  in  Germany,  p.  454.  College  Scholarships,  p.  459, 
(i)  used  as  Prizes  to  give  life  to  College  work ;  (2)  as  modes 
of  purchasing  clever  men  for  the  College,  p.  460.  Open  Scho- 
larships given  before  residence,  p.  464,  Rise  of  the  system, 
p.  464.  Condemnation  of  it  by  Mr  Wilson  of  Rugby,  p.  465. 
Scholarships  given  for  special  branches  of  knowledge,  p.  467. 
Mercenary  spirit,  p.  468.  Practical  difficulties  in  dropping  the 
plan — disappointment  of  the  expectant  class,  p.  469.  No  Col- 
lege can  cease  to  offer  such  inducements  unless  all  the  rest  do, 
p.  470.  Palliatives  that  may  be  applied  to  existing  system, 
p.  471. 


CHAPTER   IX. 

ON  MARKING  AND   CLASSING. 

Deciding  by  "marks"  and  judging  by  "  impression,"  p.  473,  List 
arranged  by  number  of  marks,  p.  477.  Result  depending  on 
the  votes  of  Examiners,  p.  477.  Marks  most  easily  assigned 
in  Mathematics,  p.  478  (note).  On  the  advantage  obtained  by 
"training"  for  display  in  Examinations,  p.  479.  Distribution  of 
marks,  p.  480.  Judging  by  impression,  p.  481.  Reasons  for 
difference  between  results  of  marking  and  of  impression,  p.  482. 
How  it  may  be  reduced,  p.  484.  Time  allowed  for  papers, 
p.  485.  Mathematical  Problem  paper,  p.  486.  Plan  for  com- 
bining scores  in  various  subjects,  p.  490.  Conflicting  advan- 
tages of  alphabetical  arrangement,  and  one  in  order  of  merit, 
p.  493.  An  order  of  merit  is  practically  of  service,  p.  494,  but 
not  equally  practicable  in  all  subjects,  p.  495.  This  difficulty 
may  be  measured.  Index  of  Indctcniilnatcness,'^.  496.  How 
to  be  found  for  various  subjects,  p.  497.  Division  of  List  into 
Classes,  p.  499.  Objections  to  an  order  of  merit  considered, 
p.  500.  Some  of  them  dependent  on  excessive  range  of  exa- 
mination, p.  504.  Alphabetical  Class  List :  strain  falls  on 
those  who  arc  uncertain  about  their  class,  p.  508.  First  Class 
alphabetical ;    others   in   order   of  merit,    p.  509,      Classing 


Contents.  xix 


together  men  of  different  standing,  p.  510,  possible  expe- 
dient, p.  511,  vivil  voce,  p.  512.  Expense  of  Examinations, 
p.  513.  Pass  Examinations,  standard  of  marks  for  passing, 
one  for  each  subject,  and  another  for  the  aggregate,  p.  514. 
Pass  Examinations  have  two  objects,  to  sift  out  incapacity  and 
to  map  out  a  course  for  the  less  studious,  p.  515  ;  acquirements 
less  to  be  looked  for  than  mental  occupation  and  discipline, 
p.  515.  Need  of  time  for  forming  habits,  p.  516.  For?n  of  the 
subjects  important ;  can  we  ensure  that  the  student  reads  the 
Avhole  book,  p.  516.  German  plan — suggestion,  p.  517.  A 
Pass  course  a  test  of  moral  qualities,  resolution,  and  conduct, 
p.  517.  Free  scope  for  the  individual  the  essence  of  University 
life,  p.  5 17.  Youths  at  home  or  at  school  may  be  made  to  pass 
University  Examinations,  but  they  are  not  University  men, 
p.  518.  Character  remains  folded  up.  All  that  is  shewn  is 
mere  power  of  learning,  p.  518. 


APPENDIX  A. 

FROPOSED   CHANGES  WITH  RESPECT  TO  FELLOWSHIPS 
IN  COLLEGE  STATUTES. 

Fellows,  how  elected  at  present,  p.  519.  Extracts  from  Reports  of 
Royal  Commission  on  Scientific  Instruction.  Sects.  164,  165, 
p.  520.  Observations,  Extract,  Sects.  139 — 159,  p.  521.  Re- 
marks, p.  529.  Need  of  Examination  Halls,  Lecture  Rooms, 
and  College  buildings,  p.  531.  Notice  of  the  lodging  difficulty, 
p.  532.    Remarks  on  Sect.  158,  p.  533. 


APPENDIX   B. 

ON  FELLOWSHIPS  AS   ''LADDERS." 

Account  of  an  Article  by  Mr  Henry  Sidgwick,  of  Trinity  College, 
on  "Idle  Fellowships."  Contemporary  Review,  April,  1876, 
p.  534.  Agreement  with  general  tcnour,  p.  535 ;  up  to  what 
point,  p.  536. 


XX 


Contents. 


APPENDIX   C. 

NOTES  ON  PROFESSORIAL    TEACHING. 

Professorial  system^Is  there  such  a  thing?  p.  538.  Savants  and 
Teachers,  539.  Lectures,  ex  cathedra,  like  scientific  papers, 
catechetical,  which  aim  at  teaching,  experimetital,  p.  540. 
Students  want  continuous  direction,  p.  541.  Professors  may- 
do  good  work  without  lecturing  to  Students,  p.  542.  University 
Fellowships  as  Pensions  for  research,  p.  543.  Provision  for 
Candidates  for  Indian  Civil  Service,  p.  543. 


ERRATA. 


Page      5,  li 

, 

15,        , 

) 

72,        , 

) 

88,     , 

1 28,     , 

5 

149.     > 

) 

3B9,     > 

J 

398,     > 

» 

472.     , 

ne  10  from  top,  for  "  schoolth-ne"  read  "  school  term." 
[5         ,,         dele  "generally." 

3  from  bottom,  for  "in"  read  "into." 

5  from  \o^,for  "guage"  read  "gauge." 

4  ,,         fl'.'/t,'"the." 

3  from  bottom,  add  "  which  came  into  operation  in  1839." 

6  from  top,  for  "Art  subjects"  read  "that  of  Art  subjects." 
16         ,,        _/t;r  "Examination"  rt'a.'/ "an  Examination." 

4  )>        yiir  "them"  n'«^  "Sizarships." 


CHAPTER  I. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


Within  the  last  thirty  years  the  agency  of  Exa- 
minations has  worked  a  revolution  in  the  whole 
province  of  Education. 

Examinations  more  or  less  competitive  now 
stand  at  the  entrance  to  many  professions ;  they 
are  the  only  means  of  access  to  Military,  Naval 
or  Civil  Service  appointments ;  and  both  at  school 
and  college  valuable  monetary  help  is  to  be  ac- 
quired by  success  in  the  examination-room.  The 
result  is  that  a  clever  boy  begins  to  earn  his 
livelihood  when  he  is  about  fourteen.  To  excel 
in  examination  is  a  profitable  art ;  it  may  be 
called  a  Profession  in  itself,  and  parents  and  sons 
consider  together  as  to  the  best  training  for  this 
professional  course  and  the  best  markets  for  at- 

L.  I 


2  On  the  Action  of  Examinations 

tainments.  Young  people  have  often  a  keener 
perception  in  such  matters  than  tlieir  fathers  have, 
and  thus  one  indirect  effect  of  this  system  is  to 
brinof  about  what  has  been  remarked  as  a  feature 
of  our  time — the  growing  independence  of  paren- 
tal authority  on  the  part  of  the  rising  generation. 
Such  independence  in  the  case  of  an  able  young- 
ster who  is  thus  beginning  to  earn  his  own  bread 
may  not  be  injurious ;  he  may  be  of  too  fine  a 
nature  to  fail  in  filial  respect  or  affection ;  but  this 
independent  spirit  may  spread  to  others  so  as  to 
weaken  authority  in  a  way  that  we  should  lament. 
I  have  touched  on  this  point,  because  it  shews 
how  Examinations  make  their  influence  felt  in 
regions  which  seem  out  of  their  domain. 

I  shall  hereafter  shew  how  an  Examination 
system  is  from  its  nature  an  encroaching  power, 
how  it  influences  the  prevalent  views  of  life  and 
work  among  young  men,  and  how  it  affects 
parents,  teachers,  the  writers  of  educational  books, 
and  the  notions  of  the  public  about  education.  But 
before  proceeding  further,  we  have  to  draw  some 
distinctions  with  a  view  of  arriving  at  something 
like  order  in  dealing  with  a  very  tangled  subject. 
Examinations  are  used  for  many  purposes,  and 
many  of  the  difficulties  and  evils  connected  with 
their  use  arise   from   the   attempt    of  those   who 


in  the  Ilizhcr  Education. 


frame  the  Examinations,  either  to  effect  too  many 
things  by  one  instrument;  as,  for  instance,  to  pick 
out  the  most  proficient,  to  reject  the  dunces,  and 
to  give  an  impetus  to  a  certain  kind  of  study  all 
by  the  same  series  of  papers  ;  or  from  their  not 
having  a  clear  view  of  what  they  are  aiming  at. 

We  may  discriminate  two  kinds  of  action  as 
being  very  distinct,  and  though  most  Examina- 
tions will  act  more  or  less  in  both  ways  at  once, 
yet  we  can  consider  the  two  kinds  of  action 
separately ;  and  it  will  be  serviceable  to  us,  in  this 
rough  attempt  to  consider  Examinations  system- 
atically, to  lay  down  two  heads  of  classification, 
according  to  the  object  for  which  they  are  espe- 
cially used. 

We  shall  have  then  : 
(i)     That  in  which  the  object  is  to  select  the 
most  suitable  persons  for  a  certain  purpose,  or  the 
men  of  most  general  ability. 

(2)     That  in  which  the  (object  is  purely  edu- 
cational. 

The  view  of  Examinations  which  has  led  to 
their  great  extension  of  late  is  that  which  is  placed 
under  head  (i).  From  the  success  at  the  Univer- 
sities of  Examinations  as  a  means  of  awarding  dis- 
tinctions and  emoluments  with  perfect  impartiality, 
they  were  brought  into  use  as  a  means  of  disposing 


4  Oil  the  Action  of  Examinations 

of  all  kinds  of  appointments.  It  was  not  taken 
into  consideration  that  this  instrument,  which  on 
the  whole  seemed  to  decide  so  justly,  was  acting 
at  the  Universities  under  particular  conditions  ; 
that  it  dealt  only  with  young  men  who  were  under 
similar  circumstances,  and  had  had  nearly  similar 
advantages,  and  that  the  branches  of  study  to 
which  it  had  been  so  successfully  applied  were 
those  which  resulted  in  the  power  of  doing  some- 
thing,— that  of  translating  a  dead  language  for 
instance,  or  of  working  out  problems  and  ex- 
plaining physical  phsenomena;  and  which  in  con- 
sequence could  be  readily  tested;  and  that  it  had 
not  been  applied  to  a  mass  of  young  men  pre- 
pared in  very  different  ways,  or  to  subjects,  like 
history  and  literature,  where  the  candidate  gains 
information  and  general  cultivation,  but  no  power 
of  doing  anything  which  can  be  exercised  in  an 
examination,  excepting  that  of  transferring  what 
he  has  read  to  the  paper  before  him. 

I  shall  hereafter  have  to  speak  further  of 
this  distinction  between  the  studies  which  endow 
the  pupil  with  a  power  of  doing  something  he 
could  not  do  before,  and  those  which  simply  add 
to  his  knowledge.  It  will  be  found  that  the  action 
of  examinations  is  different  when  applied  to  sub- 
jects of  one  or  the  other  of  these  classes. 


ill  the  Higher  Education. 


Until  within  the  last  few  years  Examinations 
were  entirely  in  the  hands  of  educational  bodies, 
and  though  they  were  used  for  purposes  of 
classification,  or  selection,  still  they  were  mainly 
fashioned  with  a  view  to  the  object  specified 
under  head  (2). 

The  mere  saying  of  a  lesson,  or  the  week's 
repetition,  is  in  fact  the  rudiment  of  the  examina- 
tion viewed  educationally.  The  examination  at  the 
end  of  each  school-time  is  a  powerful  instrument 
in  the  hands  of  the  teacher ;  it  concentrates  atten- 
tion, it  forces  the  student  to  carry  a  whole  book, 
or  a  whole  subject  in  his  head  at  once,  and  it  acts 
as  a  powerful  stimulant ;  it  gives  the  boys  an  ob- 
ject to  work  for ;  they  work  to  do  well  in  the 
examination,  they  look  no  further  than  this,  and 
there  is  no  need  that  they  should  do  so ;  but  the 
teacher  so  arranges  the  subjects  of  study  and  the 
papers,  that  he  who  most  steadily  works  with  a 
view  to  success,  shall  get  the  most  good,  both  in 
the  way  of  knowledge  and  of  intellectual  training. 

It  will  be  of  service  to  fix  precisely  the  mean- 
ings in  which  the  terms  Liberal  and  Technical 
Education  will  be  used.  These  two  phrases  are 
commonly  employed  so  loosely  as  to  be  useless 
where  precision  is  required.  I  propose  then  to  use 
them  in  a  rigorous  sense ;    premising  that  most 


6  On  the  Action  of  Examinations 

Liberal  Educations  are  so  far  Technical  that  they 
enable  a  man  to  do  somethinof  which  he  could 
not  do  before,  and  most  Technical  Educations  are 
Liberal  ones  also  in  so  far  as  they  really  improve 
the  man,  by  disciplining  his  attention  and  forcing 
him  to  care  and  accuracy ;  moreover  it  has  a  good 
moral  effect  on  a  youth  to  feel  that  he  has  acquired 
a  mastery  over  matter,  or  the  power  of  doing 
something  which  is  of  service  to  other  people. 

I  propose,  however,  to  limit  the  terms  as  fol- 
lows : — 

An  education  is  liberal  so  far  as  it  concerns 
itself  with  the  good  and  the  cultivation  of  the 
pupil ;  valuing  any  accomplishment  it  may  give 
him,  for  the  new  perceptions  it  opens  out,  for  the 
new  powers  it  confers,  or  for  any  other  good  it 
may  do  the  man,  and  not  regarding  the  work  pro- 
duced :  Liberal  Education  w^ould  like  to  make  a 
man  an  artist,  that  he  may  have  a  delightful  oc- 
cupation, and  acquire  an  eye  for  beauty  and  for 
truth  ;  she  would  like  him  to  paint  well,  because 
this  would  shew  the  possession  of  such  an  eye 
and  many  other  qualities  as  well,  but  she  would 
not  care  much  about  the  pictures  themselves  ;  she 
would  not  care  a  bit  whether  his  pictures  were 
valuable  or  not. 

An  education  so  far  as  it  is  technical  is  careful 


in  the  Higher  Education. 


not  for  the  workman  but  for  the  work  :  Technical 
Education  wants  to  get  good  pictures,  and  she 
only  values  any  qualities  of  an  artist  so  far  as 
they  conduce  to  this  end.  She  aims  at  moulding 
the  man  into  a  perfect  instrument  for  a  particular 
purpose. 

The  general  adoption  of  a  system  of  compe- 
titive Examinations  in  the  subjects  which  have 
usually  been  supposed  to  belong  to  a  Liberal  Edu- 
cation has  tended  to  combine  more  completely  in 
practice  these  two  kinds  of  education,  which  were 
already  to  some  extent  combined  by  the  nature 
of  the  case. 

A  young  man  has  to  present  himself  for  an 
important  examination  on  a  certain  day,  a  list  of 
subjects  is  given  him  with  the  number  of  marks 
assigned  to  each,  and  the  number  required  to  en- 
sure success  is  pretty  well  understood.  His  tutor 
has  a  limited  time  for  preparation.  The  problem 
before  him  is  therefore  very  different  from  that  of 
simply  doing  what  is  best  for  the  pupil.  The 
tutor  must  consider  not  what  studies  or  what  kind 
of  teaching  will  do  him  most  good,  but  what 
studies  will  yield  the  highest  aggregate  in  the 
given  time,  and  he  must  teach  his  pupil  each  sub- 
ject not  with  a  view  to  call  out  his  intelligence, 
but  with  a  view  to  producing  the  greatest  show  on 


8  On  the  Action  of  Exa7ninations 

a  stated  day ;  for  instance,  he  must  teach  him  a 
language  by  some  sort  of  Ollendorff  process,  which 
shall  address  itself  to  the  ear  and  the  memory, 
rather  than  by  a  method  which  involves  any  gram- 
matical analysis ;  while  in  mathematics  he  must 
teach  him  such  operations  as  can  be  performed  by 
a  sort  of  general  recipe.  The  tutor  must  turn  the 
qualities  of  the  pupil,  such  as  they  may  be,  to 
the  best  account  he  can  in  point  of  marks.  He 
cannot  try  to  remedy  any  mental  defects,  there 
is  not  time  enough  for  any  such  undertaking 
to  yield  profit ;  he  must  make  the  most  of  such 
qualities  as  the  pupil  has  ;  in  the  case  of  one  who 
is  tolerably  quick  but  mentally  self-indulgent  and 
repelled  by  the  first  serious  difficulty,  he  must, 
instead  of  forcings  him  to  face  the  fancied  o-iants 
in  his  path,  humour  his  weak  points  and  make 
the  most  of  his  strong  ones,  and  he  must  direct 
him  to  take  up  several  subjects  which  require  no 
further  power  than  that  of  carrying  matter  for  a 
short  time — a  useful  one  indeed  in  many  callings, 
but  which  is  sure  to  find  all  the  exercise  it  wants  ; 
in  short,  the  tutor  in  such  a  case  has  to  look  to 
the  work  that  can  be  turned  out,  more  than 
to  the  effect  of  the  training  on  the  producer ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  spirit  of  technical  teaching 
enters   very    largely   into    the    education    given, 


in  the  Higher  Edtication. 


though  the  subjects  may  be  those  used  for  a  liberal 
education. 

Those  who  afford  this  kind  of  preparation  are 
often  called  crammers.  Now  so  far  as  this  term 
implies  any  opprobrium  it  is  unjustly  applied;  a 
market  has  been  opened  for  a  particular  kind  of 
slight  fabric,  the  stouter  and  cosdier  stuffs  are 
thereby  rendered  less  saleable,  and  the  mill-owner 
must  meet  the  popular  demand  or  close  his  mills. 
People  are  hardly  aware  how  thoroughly  the 
educational  world  is  governed  by  the  ordinary 
economical  rules.  While  employing  the  motives 
of  gain  and  advancement  most  profusely,  the  pub- 
lic seems  to  find  fault  with  teachers  and  pupils 
for  being  influenced  by  these  considerations, — they 
set  young  men  to  run  a  race,  and  then  wonder 
that  they  run  not  to  improve  their  physique 
but  simply  to  win — they  make  learning  a  market- 
able commodity  and  then  complain  that  it  is 
grown  for  the  market,  and  that  few  are  now 
influenced  by  a  pure  devotion  to  science.  All 
teachers  would  rather  educate  than  cram.  It  is 
painful  to  them  to  say,  "You  must  get  off  this 
list  of  authors  and  their  works  by  heart.  I  know 
it  will  do  you  no  good,  I  know  that  the  words 
Drayton's  Polyolbion  or  Eveljn's  Sylva  convey 
to   you  no  more  meaning  than   if  they  were  the 


lo  On  the  Action  of  Examinations 

names  of  Gasteropods,  but  they  will  probably  be 
asked  for  to-morrow."  Many  of  these  men  are 
fighting  hard  to  retain  their  self-respect  under  the 
adverse  circumstances  in  which  they  are  placed ; 
but  to  fight  single-handed  against  a  system  en- 
forced by  official  Examinations  is  to  cease  to  be 
a  tutor  at  all. 

The  words  cram  and  crammer,  as  Mr  Tod- 
hunter  observes"'',  are  sometimes  loosely  used,  and 
sometimes  serve  as  a  bugbear  to  raise  a  cry 
against  some  kind  of  teaching.  This  is  frequently 
true  when  they  are  used  by  writers,  but  when 
used  by  a  pupil  or  an  undergraduate  he  means 
something  very  definite  ;  he  is  the  individual  who 
wears  the  shoe,  and  such  I  have  generally  found 
can  usually  be  trusted  both  when  they  tell  you 
where  it  pinches,  and  where  they  find  it  best  to 
cut  a  hole  to  make  it  easy.  So  when  a  youth  says 
he  has  left  a  tutor's  and  gone  to  a  "crammer's" 
in  London  to  prepare  for  "his  Army  Exam.,"  he 
is  sensible  of  a  real  difference  ;  he  does  not  mean 
any  personal  disrespect,  but  he  looks  on  the  latter 
person  more  as  he  would  on  a  music  master  or 
a  French  master,  as  a  person  who  has  nothing  to 
do  with  educating  him  as  a  moral  or  reasonable 
being,  but  whose  business  is  to  endow  him  with 

*   The  Conflict  of  Studies,  and  other  Essays.     Macmillan  and  Co.,  1873. 


in  the  Higher  Education.  1 1 

some  one  accomplishment ;  which  in  this  case  is 
that  of  being  able  to  answer  so  many  printed 
questions  on  a  particular  clay. 

The  case  just  considered  leads  us  to  another 
point,  which  is  very  important  in  considering  the 
operation  of  Examinations,  and  which  especially 
affects  the  spirit  in  which  the  teacher  works.  It 
makes  all  the  difference  whether  the  teaching  is  sub- 
ordinate to  the  Examination  or  the  Examination  to 
the  teaching.  One  or  the  other  is  usually  "given," 
to  use  the  mathematical  term,  and  the  other  has 
to  be  adapted  to  it.  As  long  as  Examinations 
were  conducted  only  in  schools  and  Universities, 
the  educational  effects  were  kept  well  in  view,  and 
the  range  of  the  Examinations  was  made  to  cor- 
respond with  that  of  the  work.  The  teachers  of 
course  would  not  be  the  actual  examiners,  but 
they  would  be  part  of  the  governing  body  who 
arranged  the  scheme  of  Examination,  and  would 
set  themselves  to  put  right  any  point  in  which 
the  system  acted  injuriously  on  the  course  of 
reading.  In  these  cases  the  Examination  is 
subordinate — or  rather  was  so,  for,  as  I  have  said, 
its  power  is  spreading  far  and  wide — and  its 
influence  may  be  unexceptionable. 

It  is,  however,  essential  for  any  public  com- 
petitive Examination  that  it  should  be  dissociated 


1 2  On  the  Action  of  Exa7ninations 

from  any  particular  system  of  instruction,  and  that 
the  particulars  of  it  should  be  made  known  by 
timely  notice.  This  notice  determines  the  reading 
of  the  candidates  all  over  the  country,  they  will, 
if  they  can,  obtain  copies  of  the  examination  papers, 
— even  if  they  were  not  published,  imperfect  copies 
would  get  abroad  or  particular  information  would 
be  got  from  former  candidates,  so  that  publication 
is  the  fairest  course, — and  having  these  papers  and 
the  notice,  the  pupil  can  determine  on  his  own  course 
of  reading,  and  the  tutor  feels  that  he  is  no  longer 
really  directing  his  studies.  Here  then  the  Ex- 
amination is  supreme.  If  the  tutor  go  ever  so 
little  beyond  the  prescribed  subjects,  the  pupil 
will  say  "  That  does  not  come  in,"  and  the  tutor 
is  hampered,  and  feels  that  he  is  no  longer  the 
educator.  He  becomes  like  a  Professor  in  a 
French  Lyceum,  who  is  bound  to  prepare  the 
students  to  pass  in  a  certain  "  Cours "  according 
to  a  detailed  Programme,  and  who  is  apt  to 
grow  disgusted  at  the  mechanical  nature  of  his 
employment.  This  feeling  has  produced  very 
disastrous  effects  in  French  education,  and  we 
should  be  careful  not  to  break  down  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  teacher ;  with  it  will  go  his  love 
for  his  work  and  his  faith  in  it. 

How    to   adjust   the   balance  so  as  to  afford 


in  the  Higher  Education. 


the  teacher  such  independence  as  to  let  him  give 
play  to  his  individual  turn,  and  claim  a  full  share 
of  attention  for  that  study  which  h^  can  throw  his 
heart  most  into,  without  handing  over  a  school  or 
a  class  altogether  to  one  master  or  one  professor  ; 
how  to  provide  by  the  examination  just  so  much 
control  over  the  teacher  as  shall  prevent  him  from 
slurring  over  one  part  of  a  subject  and  unduly  ex- 
aggerating the  importance  of  another;  or  save  him 
from  sinking  into  negligence  or  indifference  under 
the  insidious  temptation  of  having  his  work  sub- 
ject to  no  external  test, — of  being  able  to  say,  as 
a  foreign  professor  did,   contrasting  his   position 

with  our  Cambridge  ways,  "At /  am  the 

Senate-House," — is  a  question  which  I  shall  treat 
of  hereafter.  I  cannot  promise  a  solution,  but  I 
may  set  people  in  the  way  of  searching  for  one. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  Examinations  as  an 
encroaching  power :  the  way  in  which  their  in- 
fluence spreads  is  very  remarkable.  Directly  an 
examination  is  introduced  into  a  school  or  college 
course  in  one  subject,  we  find  that  the  general 
interest  is  attracted  so  largely  to  that  subject,  that 
there  is  a  danger  of  its  starving  the  other  subjects. 
Hence  subject  after  subject  is  brought  under  its 
range,  and  if  Examinations  leading  to  valuable 
prizes  or  privileges  are   introduced  at  all,  it  will 


14  On  the  Action  of  Examinations 

soon  be  found  necessary  to  comprise  the  whole 
work  of  the  school  or  college  in  this  range. 
Thus  it  is  that  Examinations,  which  originally 
gained  their  repute  when  applied  to  studies  which 
resulted  in  a  practical  power,  have  been  lately 
applied  to  subjects  of  mere  information,  where 
their  operation  is  more  uncertain,  and  their  in- 
fluence more  questionable. 

There  may  be  subjects  so  ill  adapted  for  the 
purposes  of  Examination,  that  it  may  not  only  be 
extremely  difficult  to  test  attainment  in  them,  or 
to  test  ability  by  means  of  them,  by  questions  on 
paper,  but,  though  the  subject  may  be  of  the 
highest  value  for  purposes  of  mental  cultivation,  it 
may  lose  a  great  deal  of  this  efficiency  by  being  put 
into  \\\^  form  required  to  render  it  available  for  an 
examination ;  for  this  new  power  is  very  tyrannical 
as  to  the  shape  In  which  it  will  have  its  aliment 
presented.  Take  for  instance  English  Literature. 
It  is  very  Instructive  for  a  small  party  to  read 
a  play  of  Shakespeare  together,  where  each  indi- 
vidual may  be  encouraged  to  dwell  on  any  ideas 
suggested  by  the  author ;  and  where  all  feel  at 
liberty  to.  stray  into  critical  discussion,  and  to  use 
the  Greek  or  French  drama  for  Illustration  or  com- 
parison. But  If  there  is  an  Examination  in  pro- 
spect, and  the  subject  has  to  be  got  up  for  the 


ill  the  Higher  Ediuailoii.  15 

Indian  or  the  Army  Examination,  no  such  easy  or 
discursive  treatment  is  possible.  The  pupils  can- 
not afford  time  to  stray  beyond  the  limits  of  proba- 
ble questions.  No  Greek  or  French  can  be  fairly 
set  in  an  English  paper,  where  English  is  weighed 
against  Greek  and  French  as  separate  subjects. 
Especially  there  is  no  use  in  dwelling  on  any 
thought  suggested  by  the  author.  *'My  thoughts," 
says  the  student,  "are  sure  not  to  be  set;"  and  so 
when  he  reads  by  himself  he  does  not  encourage 
himself  to  half  close  the  book  when  a  thought 
strikes  him,  and  linger  over  it,  and  make  a  pencil 
note  to  arrest  the  idea — and  yet  this  is  the  way  in 
which  half  our  mental  wealth  comes.  What  he 
has  to  do  is  to  get  up  the  Historical  Introduction 
and  the  notes  to  the  hard  passages  and  perplexing 
allusions,  and  to  know  the  context  of  familiar 
quotations,  and  the  derivation  of  unusual  terms. 
This  sort  of  philological  study  has  its  value  no 
doubt ;  many  students  will  take  more  interest  in 
literature  even  so  treated,  than  in  many  other 
kinds  of  work,  but  it  is  a  different  study  from  that 
which  peoples  a  young  man's  mind  with  tb.e  crea- 
tions of  orreat  writers ". 

o 

*  Students  who  have  been  attending  Lecture-;  in  l',nq;lish  witli  intere'^t. 
when  the  Examination  is  at  a  distance,  will  say  within  tliree  or  four  months 
of  the  struggle,  that  they  can  no  longer  afTord  to  treat  one  subject  so  fully, 
and  that  they  must  get  up  their  "  Manual." 


1 6  Oil  the  Action  of  Examinations 

But  we  are  in  this  dilemma  :  if  we  do  not  exa- 
mine in  English  Literature  it  will  be  absolutely 
unknown ;  for  an  impending  Examination  is  a 
jealous  master— it  absorbs  all  the  intellectual 
energy  of  its  servants.  An  anxious  candidate 
would  think  it  a  piece  of  profligate  dissipation  to 
read  a  book  requiring  any  close  attention  that  did 
not  bear  on  his  task.  Young  people  now  will  not 
read  Shakespeare,  hardly  even  Byron  or  Walter 
Scott,  in  play-hours  at  school ;  and  this  is  more 
especially  the  case  since  these  authors — who  were 
our  own  pleasant  companions  on  winter  evenings 
or  summer  afternoons — have  been  included  in 
the  lists  of  subjects  for  Examinations ;  they  have 
thereby  become  lessons,  and  got  to  be  regarded 
by  the  schoolboy  as  having  gone  over  to  the 
enemy  altogether. 

Here  then  we  see  that  this  system  is  like  an 
irresistible  power  extending  her  dominion  over 
provinces  some  of  which  are  the  better  and  some  ^ 
the  worse  for  her  sway,  but  for  the  latter,  at 
present,  no  escape  is  apparent ;  and  all  that  seems 
left  is  by  careful  adjustment,  and  by  getting  an 
insight  into  the  workings  of  this  system  and  its 
effects  immediate  and  remote,  to  minimise  the 
evils  it  brino^s  with  it. 

There  are   many  subsidiary  influences  which 


in  the  Higher  Education.  17 

favour  the  spread  of  Examinations.  We  live  in  a 
time  when  we  want  to  outdo  one  another  and  to 
have  our  doings  known.  Half  the  value  of  any 
kind  of  excellence  consists  in  its  being  declared  to 
the  world, — the  score  of  a  cricketer,  and  the  bag 
of  a  sportsman  on  the  moors  are  duly  recorded — 
and  more  is  thought  of  outdoing  a  neighbour 
than  of  enjoying  the  pastime.  The  mischief  of  the 
athleticism  now  prevailing  does  not  lie  so  much 
in  the  time  given  to  active  exertion,  as  in  the  un- 
due importance  attached  to  these  matters  by  the 
public  and  the  press.  In  the  same  way,  the  value 
of  a  high  place  in  an  Examination  list  comes  from 
publicity ; — it  goes  very  easily  into  a  newspaper, 
and  though  the  exact  amount  of  honour  is  not 
well  understood,  relatives  make  much  of  seeing 
a  youngster's  name  high  in  a  class  list ;  the  credit 
of  a  school  is  upheld  by  the  distinction  of  its  pupils 
in  public  Examinations,  and  pressure  is  thereby 
laid  on  the  master  to  direct  their  studies  with  a 
view  to  such  success.  Further,  a  youth  feels  a 
stimulus  in  reading  for  Examinations,  something 
akin  to  that  aroused  in  a  game ;  he  is  pitting  his 
wits  against  those  of  his  competitors — the  darling 
spirit  of  combat  so  powerful  in  English  lads  is 
called  to  the  help  of  the  instructor ; — more  than 
this,  he  feels  also  that  he  is  struggling  with  his 


1 8  On  the  Action  of  Examinations 

examiner — a  much  more  questionable  kind  of  con- 
test— and  he  gets  to  pride  himself  on  a  faculty 
of  divining,  as  he  goes  on,  what  is  and  is  not 
likely  to  be  set. 

When  once  a  young  man  thus  gets  habituated 
to  have  his  work  seasoned  by  this  sense  of  being 
on  the  search  for  weapons  which  he  is  at  once  to 
bring  to  bear  in  an  actual  contest,  he  will  find 
any  study  that  lacks  this  condiment  very  insipid ; 
he  will  be  like  the  whist-player  of  a  London  club 
set  down  to  play  for  penny  points  in  a  family 
rubber.  He  may  try  to  force  himself  to  his  work, 
he  may  really  wish  to  acquire  the  language  or 
the  professional  study  before  him,  but  the  com- 
parative remoteness  of  the  return  will  deaden  his 
interest.  He  has  been  used  to  look  for  points, 
to  regard  every  effective  little  bit  of  information, 
every  new  mathematical  artifice  or  short  method 
as  something  that  was  to  give  him  an  advantage 
in  a  passage  of  arms  which  he  had  in  view,  and 
when  this  is  gone  his  work  seems  for  a  time  to 
have  neither  savour  nor  salt.  This  feelingf  affects 
men  in  different  degrees;  sometimes  it  soon  passes 
away,  as  when  a  man  goes  into  active  life  and 
interests  of  another  kind  are  awakened  ;  in  other 
cases,  especially  when  there  is  no  natural  love  of 
intellectual    exertion,    it  gives   a   permanent   dis- 


i?t  the  Higher  Education.  19 

taste  for  study, — and  as  far  as  my  observation 
goes,  the  later  in  life  the  Examination  system  is 
continued,  and  the  more  subjects  are  embraced 
in  it,  the  more  serious  the  effect  is. 

From  this  it  follows  that  when  once  we  begin 
to  employ  the  stimulant  of  Examinations,  we  can- 
not do  without  it  so  long  as  the  process  of  edu- 
cation lasts.  Now  this  like  all  stimulants  requires 
very  careful  handling,  and  the  temptation  to  ex- 
cessive use  is  great :  judiciously  applied  it  may 
carry  on  the  student  until  the  genuine  interests  of 
a  professional  career  supply  the  requisite  motives 
for  exertion,  and  artificial  aids  may  be  given  up. 
Hence  Examinations  have  a  tendency  to  pro- 
long the  duration  of  their  sway  as  well  as  to  ex- 
tend its  bounds,  and  much  injury  may  be  done 
by  subjecting  men  whose  intellects  are  already 
mature — men  who  ought  to  give  their  minds  free 
play  and  who  might  engage  in  original  research 
— to  the  cramping  effect  of  Examinations. 

For  young  people,  the  advantages  of  Exami- 
nations outweigh  the  ills ;  for  full-grown  men 
the  balance  inclines  the  other  way.  A  kind  of 
Examination,  it  is  said,  should  be  found  suitable 
to  their  case,  and  no  doubt  one  kind  may  be  less 
objectionable  than  another,  but  I  know  of  none 
that  is  quite  satisfactory :  the  spirit  with  which  a  man 

2 — 2 


20  On  the  Actioji  of  Examinations 

works  whose  object  is  display  in  an  Examination, 
is  different  from  that  of  a  man  who  is  eno-aofed  in 
doing  good  conscientious  work,  from  devotion  to  a 
study  of  his  own  choosing.  A  man  of  four  or  five 
and  twenty  is  hampered  by  a  sense  of  never-ending 
pupillage,  if  an  Examination  is  hanging  over  him  ; 
he  longs  to  be  doing  his  work  for  himself  only. 

It  was  something  less  than  twenty  years  ago, 
about  the  time  when  the  statutes  of  the  Uni- 
versities were  being  recast,  that  the  world  was 
so  mightily  taken  with  its  new  panacea  of  com- 
petitive Examinations.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
introduce  special  Examinations  apart  from  those 
of  the  University  for  the  awarding  of  Fellowships 
to  Graduates  ;  at  Cambridge  happily  without  much 
success.  It  was  seen  that  it  was  not  good  to  keep 
a  man  in  an  expectant  and  unsettled  state  for  some 
years  after  his  degree,  and  that  such  a  system 
favoured  those  who  had  some  private  fortune,  as 
compared  with  those  who  had  to  maintain  them- 
selves by  tuition. 

At  that  time  most  persons  In  public  positions 
overlooked  the  important  bearing  of  Examinations 
on  education  :  they  regarded  them  simply  as  a 
touchstone.  It  was  thought  that  you  could  test 
''merit"  by  examining  a  man  just  as  you  might 
find  his  weight  by  putting  him  into  the  scales,  and 


in  the  Higher  Ediicalion.  2  1 


that  one  operation  had  no  more  effect  on  the 
constitution  than  the  other.  Besides,  at  that 
time  it  was  argued  that  even  if  there  were  any 
educational  effects  they  did  not  concern  the  se- 
lecting bodies.  Our  business,  they  said,  is  sim- 
ply to  get  the  best  men  we  can  ;  the  education 
is  your  matter.  They  were  like  the  oculist  of 
the  old  school,  who  said,  "  llierc  is  a  speck  in 
your  eye,  and  I  must  give  you  calomel  till  it 
is  absorbed."  ''  But  about  my  liver  ?  "  said  the 
patient.  "  That  is  not  my  business,"  replied  the 
oculist.  An  oculist  now  would  see  that,  to  get 
the  eye  right,  he  must  not  lose  sight  of  the 
general  health  of  the  patient.  And  in  the  same 
way,  I  trust  that  it  is  now  understood  that,  merely 
with  the  view  of  securing  for  the  state  the  best 
servants  possible,  we  must  not  so  frame  our 
Examinations  as  to  damao-e  the  ofeneral  tone  of 
the  education  of  the  country. 

A  reaction  is  already  springing  up  with  regard 
to  Examinations,  and  we  may  have  to  guard  against 
an  equally  unwise  and  indiscriminating  disfavour. 
Now  and  then  a  novel  and  potent  agent  is 
brought  forward  in  the  medical  world,  and  young 
practitioners  will  prescribe  the  fashionable  drug 
or  treatment  in  all  kinds  of  cases.  Eventually 
it   is  ascertained   that   this  nostrum,    when  used 


2  2  Oil  the  Action  of  Examinations 

habitually,  ruins  the  constitution,  and  It  Is  found 
that,  besides  its  direct  and  recognised  action, 
this  specific  has  remote  and  Indirect  effects  of 
a  serious  nature ;  these  are  not  found  out  for 
some  time,  and  In  the  meanwhile  it  is  employed 
as  if  it  were  the  safest  thlno-  In  the  world.  But 
when  disastrous  effects  have  been  brought  home 
to  it  a  reaction  comes  about,  and  the  panacea  falls 
into  a  discredit  which  it  did  not  deserve  ;  used  by 
proper  hands,  In  proper  cases  and  proper  doses, 
it  might  have  been  a  very  valuable  therapeutic. 
Something  like  this  is  beginning  to  come  about 
with  regard  to  Examinations. 

People  cry  out  against  the  over-stimulation  of 
the  existing  system,  and  they  forget  the  complete 
stagnation  of  mind  in  which  the  ordinary  British 
dunce  spent  his  life  after  he  had  escaped  from  the 
hands  of  his  schoolmaster.  Some  of  us  may 
recollect  what  the  young  men  were  who  used  to 
hanof  about  *'  waltlnor  for  their  commission ; "  or 
even  what  the  Pass-men  were  formerly  at  the 
Universities  In  the  long,  undisturbed  Interval  be- 
tween "  Little-go  "  and  Degree.  We  may  re- 
collect, too,  to  turn  to  a  higher  class  of  men, 
that  when  the  Indian  Examinations  were  first 
Introduced,  and  men  were  sent  In  to  examina- 
tion without  any   Immediate    preparation,    those 


in  the  Higher  Education. 


places  of  education  which  furnished  lectures  only 
without  final  examinations  were  unsuccessful,  the 
work  of  candidates  from  such  places  was  most 
usually  loosely  done  ;  this  drove  these  educating 
bodies  to  introduce  special  classes  and  examina- 
tions, which  have  been  attended  with  results  as 
good  as  they  could  have  hoped  for. 

But  the  prevalence  of  Examinations  affects 
the  education  not  only  of  those  who  are  going 
to  be  examined  but  also  of  those  who  are  not.  If 
there  are  at  a  tutor's  two  sets  of  boys,  one  going 
to  be  examined  shortly  and  the  other  not  so,  the 
former  will  say  to  the  latter,  "  Why  should  you 
bother  yourselves  when  you  have  nothing  to  work 
for?"  The  notion  of  improvement  has  disappeared 
with  the  former  under  the  action  of  the  more  coo-ent 
motive,  and  the  others  soon  catch  the  idea  that 
they  had  better  make  the  most  of  their  good 
fortune  in  not  having,  to  use  their  own  slang 
phraseology — for  Examinations  have  acquired  a 
slang  of  their  own — -"to  grind  for  an  Exam." 
And  as  the  former  are  eager  for  all  the  help  the 
tutor  can  give  them,  while  the  latter  are  in- 
different, and  as  the  tutor  feels  that  the  welfare 
of  the  former  and  his  own  credit  rest  on  their 
success,  while  for  the  others  there  is  no  immediate 
pressure,    he    can    hardly    help   bestowing    more 


2  4  On  the  Adiori  of  Examinations 

energy  and  thought,  even  though  he  distribute 
his  time  equally,  on  those  who  are  working  with 
most  zeal  and  whose  case  is  most  urgent.  The 
same  influence  is  felt  at  schools,  though  in  a  less 
degree. 

Hence,  even  if  a  youth  be  not  intended  for 
a  career  for  which  an  Examination  is  required, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  keep  some  such  ordeal 
before  him,  that  he  may  not  revel  in  the  im- 
munity, which  is  brought  into  such  strong  light 
by  contrast  with  the  forced  labour  of  his  com- 
panions. To  have  separate  establishments  for 
Examinees  and  non-Examinees  would  entail  still 
worse  evils ;  you  would  have  the  plums  in  one 
cake  and  the  dough  in  another.  It  is  easily 
seen  then  from  how  many  causes  and  in  how 
many  ways  the  extension  of  a  system  of  Exami- 
nations is  ensured  when  it  has  once  taken  a  firm 
hold. 

It  remains  for  us  to  inquire  why  such  a  system 
should  have  established  itself,  particularly  in  our 
own  time.  It  did  not  come  about  by  the  arbitrary 
act  of  any  person  or  of  any  educational  body,  it 
grew  up;  but  there  must  have  been  some  reason 
for  such  an  abnormal  growth.  A  stray  plant  will 
not  run  over  a  whole  country  unless  there  be  some- 
thing in  the  soil  or  the  climate  which  especially 


i7i  the  Higher  Education.  25 


suits  it.  What  elements,  then,  are  there  in  the 
temper  and  in  the  condition  of  the  times  we  hve  in, 
which  have  so  fostered  this  new  system  ?  What 
are  the  new  needs  which  Examinations  are  found, 
or  are  thought,  to  fulfil  ? 

This  inquiry  will  lead  us  to  some  general 
views  on  the  nature  of  the  agency  which  Examina- 
tions exert,  and  in  the  discussion  of  these  we 
shall  arrive  at  some  sort  of  answer  to  the  above 
queries. 


CHAPTER    II. 

GENERAL   VIEW   OF   THE   ACTION   OF   EXAMINATIONS. 

Examinations  do  for  young  people  what  the  con- 
test of  Hfe  does  for  men.  It  is  the  struesfle  of 
man  with  man  for  eminence  or  power  or  money 
that  develops  energy,  and  forces  each  individual  to 
make  the  most  of  that  which  is  in  him.  The 
struggle  may  seem  to  be  for  power  or  for  gain,  but 
it  is  not  only  for  these,  there  is  a  charm  for  most 
natures  in  the  struo-ele  itself,  man  is  ''framed  to 
battle  with  his  kind."  Many  persons  would  feel 
that  an  interest  would  be  taken  out  of  their  lives 
if  by  any  means  they  dropt  at  once  into  a  posi- 
tion which  they  were  in  the  way  to  win  by  a  fair 
fight.  Some  no  doubt  exhaust  themselves  by  over 
striving,  and  they  tax  circumstances,  or  the  high 
pressure  of  the  times,  with  the  mischief  consequent 
on  what  they  call  overwork,  but  which  more  fre- 
quently is  overworry,  and  is  more  due  to  their 
own  habits  of  mind  than  to  anything  external. 
On  the  whole  however  the  struggle  of  each  man 


General  View,  &e.  27 


towards  the  front  is  as  good  for  him  as  it  is 
for  society  at  large ;  it  keeps  him  vigorously  ex- 
ercising his  powers,  and  from  such  exertion  he 
gets  a  fuller  sense  of  life.  What  is  true  of  the 
great  conflict  is  also  true  of  the  minor  contests  in 
which  young  people  learn  their  relative  strength. 

With  the  young  and  healthy  there  is  a  re- 
dundancy of  this  combative  spirit ;  the  pleasure 
of  all  sports  and  games  comes  from  the  gra- 
tification of  it,  and  Education  must  take  it  into 
account  if  she  would  fit  herself  to  the  nature 
of  those  she  teaches.  A  few  boys  out  of  a 
thousand  will  have  a  turn  of  mind  so  abstract, 
that  they  will  find  all  the  contest  they  want  in  a 
struggle  with  a  hard  problem  or  an  intricate  pas- 
sage; but  the  great  body  of  young  people  require 
concrete  antagonists.  We  know  how  hard  it  is 
to  put  any  life  into  a  young  man's  work  if  he 
is  being  educated  by  himself  and  does  not  look 
forward  to  any  struggle.  We  sometimes  hear 
people  grieve  that  youths  are  urged  on  by  a  spirit 
of  outdoing  one  another  and  not  by  a  love  of  im- 
provement ;  this  spirit  no  doubt  should  be  kept 
within  bounds,  it  should  be  kept  healthy  and 
chivalrous,  by  the  tone  inspired  by  the  teacher  and 
by  such  arrangements  of  the  Examinations  and 
prizes  as   may  best  exclude  sordid  considerations 


General  View  of  the 


and  personal  antagonism.  But  before  we  expect 
young  men  in  general  to  do  steady  work  w^ithout 
the  stimulus  of  emulation  or  the  prospect  of  re- 
ward, we  ought  to  ask  ourselves  whether  we  find 
that  their  seniors  usually  labour  in  professions 
without  being  influenced  in  some  degree  by  simi- 
lar motives.  No  doubt  men  must  love  their  work 
more  or  less  in  order  to  do  it  thoroughly,  just  as 
no  youth  will  do  well  in  any  study  unless  he  have 
some  genuine  interest  in  it,  but  this  love  and  this 
interest  do  not  come  all  at  once,  and  meanwhile  a 
motive  is  w^anted.  Moreover,  without  ambition 
or  the  need  of  makinof  a  livelihood  few  men  will 
endure  the  routine  which  enters  into  all  pro- 
fessional courses.  Many  might  indeed  do  ama- 
teur work  of  some  kind  just  as  many  young 
men  would  engage  in  some  desultory  study,  pass- 
ing lightly  over  what  is  distasteful ;  but  few  will 
either  work  or  study  in  a  thoroughly  business- 
like way  without  some  inducement  beyond  the 
satisfaction  of  the  work  itself.  Do  statesmen 
or  barristers  or  physicians  pursue  their  courses 
without  any  stimulus  either  from  the  love  of 
triumph  or  of  distinction  or  of  gain?  Out  of  the 
thousands  of  men  in  England  who  by  their  wealth 
are  freed  from  the  need  of  professional  toil 
there  are  a  certain  number  who  devote  themselves 


Action  of  Examinations.  29 

to  some  noble  end,  to  philanthropic  or  scientific  or 
literary  work,  but  these  answer  to  those  few  boys 
who  delight  in  the  abstract  triumph  over  difficul- 
ties and  the  acquisition  of  learning  for  its  own 
sake  :  while  the  majority  of  men  do  not  engage 
in  either  work  or  study,  but  are  content  with  the 
occupations  that  fall  in  their  way ; — how  then  can 
we  look  to  boys  to  do  what  men  will  not  do  ? 

We  must  consider  this  matter  a  little  further. 
In  education  we  commonly  aim  at  effecting  two 
things,  we  want  in  some  sort  to  discipline  the  mind 
and  also  to  fit  it  up.  By  fitting  it  up,  I  do  not 
mean  the  merely  storing  it  with  dead  matter,  with 
information,  but  also  the  furnishing  it  with  ma- 
chinery which  it  can  set  to  work  at  pleasure.  The 
power  of  speaking  a  new  language,  of  seeing  in 
the  mind  the  way  in  which  forces  are  acting  in 
any  case  of  motion,  of  referring  at  sight  a  bird  or 
a  plant  to  its  proper  order,  these  are  mental 
capabilities  which  are  analogous  to  practical  ac- 
complishments, such  as  swimming  and  skating, 
which  once  acquired  remain  by  us  for  life. 

Some  branches  of  study  are  especially  valu- 
able for  the  first  of  these  purposes,  for  training  the 
mind  and  giving  a  man  the  use  of  his  brains,  while 
others  are  chiefly  important  for  the  accomplish- 
ments   in    which   they   result,  and  some  combine 


General  View  of  the 


both  sorts  of  advantage.  Now  many  boys  will  see 
the  value  of  the  studies  which  yield  them  new 
capabilities,  and  will  pursue  these  with  some  good 
will  for  their  own  sake,  but  very  few  will  devote 
themselves  of  their  own  accord  to  subjects  which 
do  not  result  in  such  capabilities,  however  valuable 
they  may  be  for  mental  discipline  ;  they  will  usu- 
ally say  that  such  subjects  are  of  no  use.  Now, 
in  fact,  method  and  good  mental  habits  are  more 
valuable  than  particular  acquirements,  because  they 
are  part  of  the  individual's  self,  while  the  others  are 
only  perishable  apparel,  and  also  because  a  person 
who  possesses  them,  who  can  apply  his  mind  and 
get  hold  of  a  question  by  its  right  end,  and  fix  his 
attention  on  one  set  of  circumstances  at  a  time, 
can  with  the  greater  readiness  acquire  any  par- 
ticular accomplishment  which  he  may  want.  But 
the  studies  which  are  best  calculated  for  imparting 
these  valuable  habits  are,  as  we  have  seen,  those 
which  young  people  are  the  least  likely  to  learn 
of  their  own  will.  A  youth  is  often  desirous  of 
being  able  to  speak  French  just  as  he  is  of  being 
able  to  play  the  flute,  and  he  will  want  to  pick  it 
up  as  quickly  as  he  can ;  he  never  thinks  of  getting 
education  out  of  the  process  of  learning,  and  it  is 
in  general  better  that  he  should  not  do  so,  for 
self-consciousness   might  spoil   the   process ;    but. 


Action  of  Examinations. 


unless  he  is  a  mathematical  genius,  he  does  not 
want  to  learn  geometry,  although  it  may  do  him 
ten  times  the  good  that  the  learning  of  French  will, 
especially  if  the  language  be  picked  up,  as  it  most 
readily  is  picked  up  by  a  boy,  by  some  reiterative 
method  depending  mainly  on  ear.  The  teacher 
then  must  look  for  some  external  inducements  to 
lead  youths  to  these  important  studies;  his  main 
resources  should  be  drawn  from  the  moral  region, 
from  the  pupil's  faith  in  the  teacher's  guidance, 
and  from  his  sense  of  the  duty  of  getting  that 
done  which  is  given  him  to  do;  but  the  teacher 
has  as  auxiliaries  the  spirit  of  emulation,  the  hope 
of  reward,  and  the  dread  of  censure  or  of  failure  ; 
these  auxiliaries  are  coming  more  and  more  to  the 
front,  they  are  getting  to  be  more  thoroughly  or- 
ganised and  are  now  perhaps  the  most  effective  of 
the  teacher's  forces. 

Possibly  the  tendency  of  the  time,  and  of  the 
tone  of  opinion  which  young  people  gather  from 
newspapers  or  what  they  hear  at  home,  may  be 
to  diminish  this  faith  and  reverence  for  authority 
among  certain  classes,  and  certainly  there  has  been 
a  growing  disposition  both  among  old  and  young 
to  look  for  positive  measurable  results.  Parents 
want  something  to  shew  for  education  ;  a  place  in 
an  Examination  list  seems  to  gauge  the  advantage 


32  General  View  of  the 

which  they  have  paid  for,  and  besides  it  frequently 
has  a  positive  market  value  as  opening  the  door 
to  some  emolument  or  profession.  From  these- 
causes,  and  also  from  a  political  one  which  we 
shall  notice  presently,  has  arisen  that  growth  of 
Examinations  alluded  to  at  the  end  of  the  last 
chapter ;  the  emulative  or  combative  spirit  is 
brought  to  bear  in  Competitive  Examinations,  and 
we  shall  find  presently  that  the  place  of  censure  or 
coercion  is  taken  by  Qualifying  Examinations,  the 
former  urge  forward  those  who  are  in  the  front, 
the  latter  oblige  those  who  hang  in  the  rear  to 
keep  up  to  a  certain  pace. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  use  of  Examinations  as 
educational  stimulants  or  for  coercion,  implies  that 
young  people  need  to  be  stimulated  or  compelled 
to  work,  that  is  to  say,  it  assumes  the  existence  of 
human  imperfection,  and  undertakes  to  deal  with 
certain  forms  of  it.  We  shall  see  later  that  we 
may  by  Examinations  modify  the  ways  in  which 
this  imperfection  shews  itself,  but  it  will  not  dis- 
appear. The  human  element  of  education,  that 
is  the  action  of  the  wise  man  on  the  weak 
one,  may  indeed  remove  the  evil  altogether, 
but  the  mechanism  of  education  of  which  Ex- 
aminations are  a  part,  can  only  dilute  or  trans- 
form   it.       It   may    indeed    be    said,   lliat    by    our 


Ac  lion  of  Exainmatio7is. 


stimulants  and  palliatives,  we  are  really  encourag- 
ing the  disease,  and  we  may  no  doubt  use  these 
agencies  so  injudiciously,  as  to  give  truth  to  the 
charge.  We  may  employ  the  motive  of  gain  so 
excessively,  as  to  thrust  into  the  background  that 
faith  in  the  teacher  and  regard  for  a  kind  word  of 
approval,  which  ought  to  serve  us  as  our  main- 
spring, and  this  danger  must  be  kept  in  view. 

There  are  some  who  think  it  possible  to 
engage  the  interest  of  young  people  in  their  own 
mental  culture,  as  much  as  in  the  acquisition  of 
accomplishments — these  say,  *'You  should  im- 
press on  your  pupil  the  need  of  training  and 
strengthening  his  faculties,  you  should  induce  him 
to  mark  his  mental  defects,  and  take  the  formation 
of  his  character  into  his  own  hands."  This  is 
very  often  attempted,  it  is  rather  a  popular  course ; 
some  young  men  like  to  be  taken  into  partnership 
as  it  were  with  their  teacher,  and  to  discuss  their 
own  mental  peculiarities.  So  fashionable  prac- 
titioners find  it  answer  their  purpose  to  discuss 
the  patient's  case  with  him,  and  let  him  indulge 
in  his  own  hypotheses,  and  suggest  the  mode  of 
treatment. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  however,  entrea- 
ties to  a  youth  to  take  earnestly  to  a  study,  in 
order  to  expand  his  mind,  are  pretty  well  thrown 
L.  3 


General   Vieiu  of  the 


away.  A  boy  is  firmly  persuaded  that  his  mind 
is  very  well  as  it  is — he  cannot  for  the  life  of  him 
understand  what  is  meant  by  its  being  expanded 
— when  you  begin  to  talk  about  studies  doing  good 
to  his  mind,  he  takes  it  to  shew  that  you  have 
nothing  better  to  say  in  their  favour,  and  that  in 
reality  they  are  "  of  no  good."  You  will  do  more 
with  him  usually,  by  calling  on  him  to  work  in  pure 
faith  as  a  matter  of  duty,  telling  him,  that  at  that 
time  he  cannot  be  made  to  see  the  good  of  these 
studies,  but  that  he  must  work,  taking  it  on  trust  that 
there  is  a  good,  and  that  you  know  what  it  is,  and 
would  not  worry  him  with  lessons  for  lessons'  sake. 
Sometimes  a  persuasive  teacher  will  lead  a  few 
boys  in  the  upper  classes  in  a  school  to  fancy  that 
they  are  interested  in  the  training  of  their  minds. 
The  result  too  often  is,  that  they  are  made  self- 
conscious  prigs.  They  will  tell  you  that  they  are 
studying  this  and  that  to  give  them  method,  or 
accuracy,  or  a  command  of  language.  They  are 
frequently  discovering  peculiarities  in  their  own 
mental  structure;  they  will  consult  their  tutor  on 
the  way  to  remedy  certain  defects  of  which  they 
are  conscious —which  defects,  by  the  way,  are 
mostly  of  that  kind  which  they  in  their  hearts 
believe  to  be  only  excellences  transformed — and 
so  they  get  positively  injured,  either  by  the  habit 


Action  of  Examinations.  35 

of  introspection  in  reality,  or  by  the  affectation 
of  watching  the  action  of  their  minds,  and  by 
boundless  talking  about  themselves. 

We  have  come  then  to  these  conclusions.  A 
very  large  proportion  of  our  young  men  require 
to  be  stimulated  to  study  in  the  same  way  as  men  ^ 
in  active  life  require  inducements  to  keep  them 
to  work ;  Competitive  Examinations  answer  to 
the  struirMe  for  advancement  in  life ;  Oualifyini^ 
Examinations  to  the  necessity  for  competent  abi- 
lity-— a  necessity  which  is  becoming  daily  more 
imperative: — and  lastly  the  subjects  which  are  the 
most  repulsive,  or  which  )'ield  the  smallest  imme- 
diate return  in  the  way  of  a  practical  acquirement, 
are  the  most  in  need  of  this  adventitious  encou- 
ragement. 

It  should  always  be  recollected  that  there  are 
two  ways  in  which  the  miniature  struggle  in  Exa- 
minations is  preparatory  to  the  real  encounter  of 
life :  it  is  so  not  only  because  it  leads  men  to  la)' 
up  weapons  in  the  way  of  acquirements,  or  to 
strengthen  the  sinews  of  the  brain  by  exercise, 
but  also  because  it  calls  out  the  moral  qualities 
needful  for  success  in  life — it  requires  teachable- 
ness, concentration,  and  above  all,  the  power  of 
"enduring  hardness,"  of  working  when  one  would 
rather  not  work,  and  setting  one's  self  to  master 


General  View  of  the 


thoroughly  what  may  be  distasteful.  I  believe 
myself  that  one  great  effort  in  the  way  of  a  heavy 
Examination  is  a  very  valuable  piece  of  mental 
discipline ;  it  calls  out  the  courage  and  the  re- 
sources that  there  are  in  a  man,  and  merely  to 
have  made  this  effort  conscientiously,  and  have 
done  his  best,  gives  a  moral  elevation  to  the  cha- 
racter, even  if  he  fail  in  winning  any  very  marked 
success.  It  gives  a  man  confidence  and  self- 
respect  through  life,  to  have  performed  something 
like  an  achievement — some  result  of  steady  self- 
denial — at  the  outset  of  his  career. 

No  doubt  there  are  some  persons  too  feeble 
to  make  any  considerable  effort.  There  is,  I  fear, 
an  increasing  proportion  of  our  young  men  who 
are  so  weakly  that  the  machine  can  only  just  be 
kept  going — it  cannot  be  made  to  do  work.  An 
effort  might  indeed  be  dangerous  to  these  persons, 
and  it  might  be  slightly  hurtful  to  those  who  are 
only  a  few  degrees  stronger,  but  there  is  little  fear 
that  such  persons  will  ever  venture  on  an  effort 
too  great  for  them.  As  our  wishes  are  said  to 
be  the  fore-feeling  of  our  capacities,  so  our  lan- 
guor or  timidity  is  the  forerunner  which  keeps 
incapacity  from  the  danger  of  over-exertion.  But 
while  some  parents  are  eagerly  pitting  their  sons 
against  each  other  for  scholarships  at  school   or 


Actioji  of  Examinations.  3  7 

collefje,  others  have  a  terrible  fear  of  overworkinir 
the  brain,  and  seem  to  hold  that  the  proper  state 
of  that  organ  is  one  of  complete  repose.  Per- 
sons enofaijed  in  education  will  ao;-ree  that  cases 
are  now  not  infrequent  in  which  both  mind  and 
body  are  in  danger  of  being  coddled  into  flac- 
cidity,  from  the  fear  which  fond  relations  entertain, 
of  their  darlinofs'  enerofies  being:  overstrained.  We 
cannot  afford  to  let  all  severity  pass  out  of  educa- 
tion, for  the  world  is  no  easier  for  men,  though 
indulgent  parents  may  make  it  so  for  boys. 

I  have  said  one  great  effort ; — of  course  this 
one  effort  will  involve  many  preparatory  re- 
hearsals ;  but  these  should  be  all  subsidiary  to  the 
great  struggle;  these  trials  will  not  affect  the  unity 
of  the  end  which  the  candidate  sets  before  him ; 
in  this  unity  part  of  the  wholesomeness  of  the 
effort  lies.  Singleness  of  aim  is  a  most  important 
lesson.  I  am  not,  be  it  observed,  supposing  here 
that  the  Examination  is  of  any  particular  kind, 
or  limited  to  one  subject ;  only  it  should  be  such 
that  it  may  readily  be  conceived  as  a  whole.  If 
the  subjects  of  Examination  are  very  multifarious, 
the  student  loses  this  singleness  of  purpose ;  he 
is  always  balancing  the  comparative  advantages 
of  investing  his  time  in  this  branch  of  study  or 
the  other.      Hence  comes  doubt,  and  doubt  often 


General  View  of  the 


leads  to  inaction — an  inaction  by  the  way  which 
is  anything  but  rest ;  for  though  the  man  may 
not  stir,  he  is  being  pulled  by  conflicting  claims 
in  two  or  three  ways  at  once. 

I  do  not  say  that  two  such  efforts  would  do 
absolute  harm ;  but  the  second  would  not  bring 
a  like  amount  of  the  moral  good  that  we  have 
spoken  of;  it  might  however  have  good  intellectual 
results  in  the  way  of  carrying  the  student  through 
a  fresh  range  of  subjects.  More  than  two  such 
efforts  would  usually  impair  the  elasticity  of  the 
mind,  and  a  series  of  them  would  cramp  and  en- 
feeble it.  A  succession  of  small  efforts,  such  as  a 
series  of  trials  for  scholarships  or  appointments, 
has  a  decidedly  injurious  effect ;  there  is  in  them 
none  of  the  discipline  of  a  grand  effort,  no  gather- 
ing up  of  energies  and  concentration  of  them  on 
a  single  purpose.  The  constant  canvassing  of 
the  number  of  vacancies  and  of  probable  com- 
petitors, the  talk  about  rharks  and  money  value, 
is  far  from  elevating,  and  the  constant  getting 
up  of  subjects  and  letting  them  go  again,  leaves 
the  mind  like  an  indiarubber  band  which  has 
been  too  often  stretched.  It  has  been  already 
said  that  Examinations  should  not  be  carried  far 
on  into  life :  when  it  is  time  for  the  real  contest 
to  begin  the  mimic  ones  should  be  given  up.      I 


Action  of  Exaniinatio7is.  39 

should  put  the  age  of  twenty-four  or  twenty-five 
as  the  extreme  Hmit  within  which  any  Examina- 
tion is  advisable  (beyond  a  qualifying  professional 
Examination),  and  I  should  prefer  that  a  young 
man  should  have  done  with  Examinations  by  the 
time  he  is  twenty -three. 

I  referred  just  now  to  one  cause  for  the  spread 
of  Examinations,  which  was  of  a  political  nature. 
It  has  been  the  policy  of  our  government  to  free 
themselves  from  the  burden  of  patronage,  b}^ 
throwing  appointments  open  to  competition.  This 
use  of  Examinations  as  a  means  of  dispensing 
Government  patronage  withdraws  them  from  the 
province  of  purely  educational  science.  In  a  purel)- 
educational  treatise  we  might  say,  under  certain 
circumstances  they  ought  not  to  be  employed  at 
all.  Just  as  medical  men  might  say  that  no  man 
should  engage  in  some  unhealthy  handicraft — the 
making  of  needles  for  instance ; — but  the  world 
must  have  needles  and  the  Government  must 
dispose  of  its  patronage,  and  all  that  medical  or 
educational  bodies  can  do  is  to  bring  the  mischief 
to  a  minimum.  In  this  as  in  many  other  matters 
it  is  the  business  of  our  own  time  to  weigh, 
and  to  adjust,  and  to  correct, — to  make  measure- 
ments, to  estimate  comparative  magnitude,  and  to 
strike  the  balance  between  opposing  tendencies. 


40  General  View  of  the 

I  think  that  a  priori  it  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  we  can  remove  by  any  ingenious  mechanism 
all  possible  ill  effects  from  such  competitive  Ex- 
aminations. The  reason  is  that  the  necessity  for 
these  Examinations  arises  from  some  social  and 
moral  evils  which  belong  to  another  region  alto- 
gether. Such  evils  will  bring  about  practical  in- 
conveniences. They  have  a  way  of  asserting  that 
they  are  evils  in  a  very  unmistakeable  manner,  and 
you  can  no  more  do  away  with  moral  evils  or  with 
their  effects  by  any  agency  that  is  not  moral 
in  its  nature  than  you  could  change  by  ingenuity 
of  construction  the  amount  of  labouring  force 
transmitted  by  an  engine.  Now  Examinations 
may,  no  doubt,  when  taken  as  part  of  a  course  of 
education,  help  to  call  out  moral  qualities ;  but 
they  have  little  or  no  moral  bearing  w^hen  they 
are  used  simply  as  sifting  apparatus,  and  are  not 
connected  with  any  course  of  teaching. 

Our  mode  of  government  requires  a  system  of 
Eximinations  as  a  means  of  dispensing  patronage  so 
as  to  avoid  solicitation  and  the  suspicion  of  favour. 
Now  a  system  may  be  found  which  shall  answer 
the  above  purpose  well,  and  which  may  never- 
theless give  rise  to  a  bad  mode  of  study.  Here 
the  difficulty  arises  from  using  an  educational 
agent  for  a  purpose  which  is  not  educational.    The 


Action  of  Exammatio7is,  41 

Examination,  in  order  to  give  a  fair  chance  to  all 
comers,  must  be  equally  adapted  to  all  kinds  of 
education.     I  believe  that  no  such  general  adapta- 
tion can  really  be  effected,  but  we  shall  see  that 
the    attempt   to    effect   it   is   the   cause  of  much 
mischief.     Education  does  not  undertake  to  pro- 
vide a  machine  which  shall  sort  out  men  according 
to  merit.     Education  would  at  once  ask  you  what 
is  meant  by  merit,^whether  there  is  not  one  kind 
of  merit  for  soldiers  and  another  for  civilians, — 
and  would  indeed    put  so  many  unpleasant- and 
Socratic  questions  that  she  would  be  sent  about 
her  business.     She  would  insist  upon  it  that  the 
only  thorough  remedy  for  an  openness  to  the  sus- 
picion of  shewing  favour  on  the  part  of  the  gover- 
nors— or  for  a  suspicious  temper  of  mind  on  the 
part  of  the  governed — or  for  the  corrupting  in- 
fluence of  solicitation,  was  to  improve  the  tone  of     / 
public  opinion.     She  would  say,  perhaps,  that  she 
has  been  trying  to  do  this  in  her  own  way,  and  to 
raise  teachers  and  learning  in  public  estimation  as 
a    step    in   this  direction,    but  that   to  make    in- 
formation an  article  that  a  youngster  only  wants 
to  run  to  market  with  and  get  the  best  price  for, 
is  not  the  way  to   promote  this.     Statesmanship 
would    thereupon    reply    that    a    mechanism    was 
wanted  at  once  to  meet  an  urgent  need,  and  that 


42  General  View  of  the 

the  matter  could  not  stand  over  till  the  world 
grew  wiser ;  and  Education,  like  a  sensible  body, 
would  allow  that,  in  our  complicated  state  of 
things,  no  one  department  can  look  for  a  clear 
stage  all  to  itself,  but  must  make  the  most  of  what 
room  it  can  get  and  be  ready  to  lend  a  helping 
hand,  when  wanted,  for  the  general  good. 

I  have  said  in  the  last  chapter  that  Examina- 
tions have  two  leading  functions  ;  they  may  serve 
for  selection  and  they  may  assist  education ;  but 
an  arrangement  suitable  for  one  purpose  may  be 
bad  for  the  other ;  so  we  may  arrive  at  a  kind  of 
antagonism.  This  is  the  source  of  many  of  our 
difficulties ;  and  it  will  frequently  present  itself 
as  we  proceed  with  the  subject. 

The  case  before  us  is  of  such  importance  that 
it  must  be  considered  at  some  length.  No  doubt 
in  a  perfect  state  of  things,  those  who  have  to 
give  appointments  would  be  incapable  of  partiality, 
and  the  public  would  not  dream  of  suspecting 
them ;  but  we  have  to  deal  with  imperfections 
which  we  cannot  remove,  and  all  we  can  do  is  to 
mitigate  the  mischief  which  results  from  them  \ 
it  will  still  exist,  but  we  may  make  it  take  another 
form.  Instead  of  solicitation  and  corruption  on 
the  part  of  the  electoral  body  we  shall  have  a 
certain    amount   of   demoralization   in   the  educa- 


Action  of  Exaviinations.  43 

tional  world  ;  tutors  and  pupils  will  occasionally 
conspire  for  the  simulation  of  knowledge,  and  a 
mercenary  view  of  the  object  of  instruction  may  be 
spread  among  parents  :  the  nuisance  will  have  been 
transferred  from  the  electoral  to  the  educational 
arena,  but  then  the  educational  interest  will  get 
some  very  decided  advantages  by  way  of  a  set-off. 

The  evils  of  the  competitive  system  admit  of 
being  very  forcibly  depicted,  and  it  is  thus  easy  to 
create  a  strono-  feelinsf  asfainst  it ;  but  we  shall  find 
that,  in  many  departments,  more  good  than  harm 
has  resulted  from  it ;  only  the  disadvantages  of 
the  present  system  are  before  our  eyes,  and  those 
of  the  system  it  has  displaced  are  coming  to  be 
forgotten.  It  is  surely  better  for  clerkships  to 
be  awarded  by  competition  than  for  young  men  to 
be  content  to  remain  dunces,  as  they  used  to  do, 
because  the  borough  member  had  promised  to 
do  somethinof  for  them. 

With  regard  to  the  lower  class  of  appointments 
such  as  the  clerkships  in  some  of  the  larger  govern- 
ment departments,  the  balance  in  favour  of  the 
present  plan,  considered  educationally,  is  very  con- 
siderable. The  Examinations  have  caused  a  larofe 
body  of  young  men  to  get  an  education  which, 
though  not  all  we  could  wish,  is  better  than  the 
"schoolintr"  which    used   to   be  obtained  at    the 


44    •  General  View  of  the 

"  Classical  and  Commercial  Academy "  of  twenty- 
years  back.  The  class  of  persons  who  obtain  the 
appointments  is  probably  not  much  changed  by 
the  system.  Some  improvement  will  have  been 
effected  in  their  arithmetic,  and  in  their  power  of 
expressing  themselves  ;  this  will  be  permanent,  be- 
cause these  accomplishments  will  be  in  daily  use  ; 
moreover,  the  selected  candidates  must  have  shewn 
an  acquaintance  with  the  leading  facts  of  history 
and  geography ;  but  this  knowledge  is  often 
transitory.  What  the  performance  of  the  can- 
didate really  represents  is  the  power  of  carrying  a 
certain  amount  of  matter  in  the  mind  for  a  time. 
This  power  is  a  useful  one  as  far  as  it  goes  ;  but  the 
great  good  that  has  been  effected  by  the  system  is, 
that  a  better  class  of  middle  schools  has  been  called 
into  existence.  This  no  doubt  is  partly  due  to  the 
University  Local  Examinations,  but  the  success 
of  these  examinations  themselves  would  have 
been  much  less  decided  if  parents  had  not  been 
aroused  by  prudential  motives  to  the  necessity 
of  training  their  sons  to  encounter  such  ordeals. 

With  regard  to  the  higher  class  of  appoint- 
ments such  as  those  for  the  Indian  Civil  Service, 
I  am  of  opinion  that  the  system  works  injuriously 
for  the  higher  education,  and  I  cannot  but  think 
that  the  department  itself  does  not  obtain  such 


Action  of  Exa^ninations.  45 

effective  public  servants  as  it  mi^ht  command.  I 
need  not  insist  on  the  main  defect  of  the  plan, 
because  it  is  generally  allowed.  I  mean  that  the 
essential  requisites  for  an  Indian  Civil  Servant  are 
that  he  should  have  a  vigorous  will  and  be  self- 
helpful  in  emergencies,  qualities  which  an  Ex- 
amination does  not  pretend  to  test.  I  am  now 
concerned  mainly  with  the  good  of  the  candidates 
themselves  in  an  educational  point  of  view.  In 
regard  to  this,  the  evils  have  mainly  arisen  from 
the  want  of  foreseeincf  the  effects  of  so  wide  an 
Examination,  backed  by  such  vast  prizes,  on  modes 
of  education.  The  present  system  was  framed 
mainly  with  a  view  to  selection  and  to  giving  fair 
play  to  different  kinds  of  knowledge.  It  was  in- 
tended to  fashion  the  Examination  so  as  to  give 
full  recosfnition  to  all  branches  of  learnino-  without 
favouring  any  particular  kind  of  education  ;  but  it 
was  not  perceived  that  when  a  system  of  Exa- 
minations like  that  for  the  Indian  Civil  Service 
is  put  forward,  this  contains  implicitly  a  scheme 
of  education  in  itself.  There  must  be  some  spe- 
cial course  of  study  and  mode  of  instruction  more 
adapted  than  others  to  ensure  success ;  what  this 
most  effectual  method  is  can  be  made  out  from 
the  published  papers  and  the  tables  of  marks,  with 
the  help  of  a  little  experience  ;  and  after  a  time 


46  General   View  of  tJie 

this  method  will  be  usually  adopted  by  candidates. 
Few  parents  can  venture  to  consider  anything  else 
than  how  to  secure  an  appointment ;  they  have  to 
look  not  for  sound  education,  but  for  "  successful 
preparation."  The  consequence  is,  that  what  the 
framers  expressly  intended  to  avoid  has  come 
about,  and  a  particular  sort  of  education  is  pressed 
upon  the  candidates  for  these  appointments;  either 
they  must  get  it  at  a  special  trainer's,  or  in  a 
particular  class  in  a  school  which  is  put  into  the 
hands  of  a  particular  master  who  has  studied  the 
working  of  the  system.  If  the  education  thus 
practically  enforced  has  injurious  tendencies,  then 
we  are  compelling  a  very  important  class,  in  whose 
sound  cultivation  we  are  greatly  interested,  to 
adopt  a  mode  of  learning  which  is  not  satisfactory. 
I  will,  for  example's  sake,  name  one  or  two  of 
the  influences  of  this  kind  of  training  which  have 
come  under  my  own  observation.  I  have  re- 
marked that  damage  is  done  to  energy  and  con- 
centration of  mind  by  the  encouragement  which 
this  system  gives  to  the  '^getting  up  "  of  a  great 
diversity  of  subjects  at  the  same  time.  The 
feebler  the  youth,  the  less  way  he  can  penetrate 
into  any  subject, — for  the  resistance  may  be 
said  to  vary  as  the  square  of  the  distance  from 
the  surface — and  therefore  the  more  subjects  he 


Action  of  Examinations.  47 

must  take  in  to  give  him  a  chance  of  the  need- 
ful ''marks."  He  gets  to  crave  the  stimukis  of 
constant  change  of  study,  and  the  attempt  to  carry 
many  subjects  in  his  head  at  once  produces  a 
distraction  which  is  physically  injurious ;  it  results 
in  languor  and  a  contempt  for  learning. 

Again,  the  trainer  must  pick  out  the  subjects  to 
be  taken  in  according  to  the  marks  they  are  likely 
to  yield,  not  according  to  the  good  they  are  likely 
to  do  the  candidates.  A  youth  who  is  averse  to 
a  certain  study  often  requires  particularly  the  dis- 
cipline of  that  study ;  a  muddle-headed  youth 
needs  geometry ;  an  inobservant  one,  botany  or 
the  like ;  but  the  trainer  must  keep  each  youth  to 
the  subjects  in  which  he  can  do  best ;  and  if  any 
new  subjects  are  to  be  taken,  those  must  be  chosen 
in  which,  by  some  mnemonical  process,  a  fair  show 
can  be  made  in  a  short  time.  I  have  frequently 
had  to  prepare  candidates  for  the  Indian  Civil 
Service  Examinations.  At  first,  before  the  range 
of  the  Examination  had  been  taken  by  the  special 
trainers,  the  course  for  it  ran  along  side  by  side 
with  that  which  would  be  followed  for  educational 
purposes,  and  the  work  was  satisfactory  enough ; 
but  of  late  a  particular  kind  of  preparation  has 
been  thought  necessary,  I  have  also  frequently 
had  as  my  pupils  in  College,  those  who  had  just 


48  General   View  of  the 

failed  in  getting  an  appointment — these  are  not 
likely  to  be  very  different  in  their  mental  character 
from  those  who  had  just  succeeded — and  I  have 
found  very  generally  indeed,  that  those  who  had 
gone  through  a  series  of  such  trials,  had  the  same 
kind  of  mental  defect.  They  were  usually,  for  a 
long  time,  incapable  of  giving  their  minds  steadily 
to  any  subject  requiring  close  attention. 

We  see  then  with  regard  to  competitive 
Examinations,  that  evils  arise  from  their  employ- 
ment which  represent  as  it  were  the  moral  defect 
which  rendered  them  necessary,  and  we  shall  find 
something  analogous  in  the  case  of  compulsory 
qualifying  Examinations :  on  these  I  must  now 
make  a  few  remarks. 

Just  as  some  persons  are  urged  to  put  out  all 
their  capacities  in  battling  for  pre-eminence,  so 
there  are  many  people  in  the  world  who  are  saved 
from  torpor  of  mind  or  body  by  having  to  win 
their  bread.  "Must,"  says  the  proverb,  "is  a 
hard  master."  So  when  young  people  are  re- 
hearsing under  education  their  parts  for  life, 
something  must  stand  for  this  stern  but  salutary 
necessity  of  doing  one's  daily  work.  Thus  coercion 
steps  in  where  competition  fails. 

There  are  many  youths  who  have  little  aptitude 
for  anything  that  is  intellectual ;  their  attainments 


Action  of  Exaniinations.  49 


will  never  have  an)-  market  value,  but  they  them- 
selves may  be  improved  in  a  very  great  degree  : 
their  brains  will  grow  and  harden  under  steady  ex- 
ercise. The  youth  who,  if  left  to  hang  about  home, 
becomes  densely  stupid  and  good  for  nothing, 
might  have  become  a  useful  person  with  average 
practical  sense,  if  he  had  been  properly  handled 
at  the  important  time  when  the  brains  take  their 
shape. 

Dull  youths  require  strong  motives  to  make 
them  use  their  minds ;  people  will  tell  you  that 
some  subject  could  be  found  which  would  interest 
them,  and  if  you  may  include  field-sports  or  games 
in  this  word  "  subject,"  the  observation  is  true  ;  if 
not,  it  is  not  borne  out  by  my  experience  as  a 
general  proposition,  though  it  holds  good  in  par- 
ticular cases.  The  aversion  of  idle  boys  is  to 
brain-work  as  brain-work;  and  in  the  majorit)-  of 
cases  their  dislike  to  it  depends  less  on  the  kind 
of  work  than  on  the  intensity  of  it.  As  they  get 
older,  and  the  business  of  life  comes  in  sight,  they 
will  often  take  a  genuine  interest  in  what  bears 
on  their  future  career. 

Some  motive,  however,  must  be  supplied  mean- 
while to  spur  them  to  the  salutary  exercise  of  their 
minds;  we  should  be  glad  to  find  such  motives  as 
sense  of  duty,  confidence  in   teacliers,  and  kindh- 

L.  4 


50  General  View  of  the 

encouragement  sufficient  for  the  occasion.  Hap- 
pily in  many  instances  they  are  so,  but  they  often 
require  to  be  supplemented  by  some  kind  of  coer- 
cion, and  the  form  in  which  this  is  most  conveni- 
ently administered  in  our  days  is  that  of  a  quali- 
fying Examination  ;  or,  what  acts  much  more  effect- 
ively, a  course  of  Examinations  so  arranged  as  to 
supply  constant  and  appropriate  mental  exercise. 
The  necessity  then  for  compulsory  Examinations 
arises  from  the  wide-spread  human  failing  of  lazi- 
ness, and  we  shall  see  that  the  increased  call  for 
them  arises  in  part  from  the  growing  disinclination 
to  exercise  authority  or  to  oblige  any  one  by  direct 
compulsion  to  do  what  is  disagreeable  to  him. 

It  makes  all  personal  relations  much  smoother 
to  shift  the  duty  of  exacting  work  off  the  teacher's 
shoulders  and  put  it  on  a  relentless  piece  of 
mechanism.  The  pupil  may  then  be  brought  to 
look  on  the  teacher  as  an  ally  and  a  guide,  and  an 
indulgent  parent  may  even  consent  to  the  exercise 
of  some  pressure  on  the  master's  part,  rather  than 
have  his  son  devoured  by  the  pitiless  monster 
"pluck."  In  this  way  such  Examinations  help 
the  master  to  regain  some  of  his  waning  autho- 
rity, but  the  spirit  of  the  instruction  is  affected ; 
the  boy  allows  that  the  master's  duty  is  "to  keep 
him  up  to  work/'  not  because  it  is  wicked  for  him 


Action  of  Examinations. 


to  be  idle,  but  because  the  master  is  bound  to  get 
him  through,  and  unless  the  teacher  be  preserved 
by  high  personal  qualities,  there  is  a  danger  of 
his  corning  to  be  regarded  as  a  skilled  confederate 
in  a  orame. 

Two  causes  of  the  extension  of  the  demand  for 
compulsory  examinations  call  for  especial  mention. 

One  of  these  is  the  increased  need  of  requiring 
a  certain  standard  of  ability  and  acquirement  as 
a  qualification  for  various  positions  in  life ;  and 
the  second  is  the  growing  aversion  to  the  exercise 
of  authority,  either  parental  or  scholastic,'  which 
has  been  already  spoken  of,  and  the  anxiety  to 
find   a  stimulus  which  shall  take  its  place. 

The  first  named  cause  comes  partly  from  the 
increasing  severity  of  the  struggle  for  existence 
and  partly  from  the  extension  of  the  province  of 
scientific  knowledge.  Formerly  there  were  three 
"learned  professions" — now  the  army  and  navy 
would  claim  to  be  added  to  the  list — and  many 
kinds  of  business  require  a  special  knowledge 
which,  to  be  effective,  should  be  based  on  some- 
thing like  a  liberal  education.  In  all  these  callino-.s 
men  are  wanted  who  have  a  certain  amount  of 
brains  and  have  learned  the  use  of  them ;  this  use 
they  do  not  get  without  education.  Examinations 
are  in  consequence  instituted  to  test  this  educa- 

4— J 


52  Genej'-al  Viczu  of  the 

tion  ;  and  it  was  at  first  taken  for  granted  that 
by  the  examining  process,  the  quahty  of  the 
education  or  the  ability  of  the  man  could  be  tested 
as  accurately  as  a  ganger  could  estimate  the 
amount  of  alcohol  in  a  sample  of  spirits. 

But  the  examiner  does  not  test  qualities  of 
mind  directly,  he  only  Infers  them  from  the  answers 
to  questions:  for  these  answers  he  gives  "marks", 
and  by  these  marks  the  result  is  determined.  No 
doubt  in  looking  over  papers  a  practised  examiner 
does  see  a  good  way  Into  the  character  of  a  man's 
mind,  he  gets  an  impression  over  and  above  his 
marks;  but  of  his  marking  he  must,  in  the  case 
of  many  government  appointments,  be  prepared 
to  give  an  account — he  is  told  to  note  every  word 
or  figure  that  is  wrong,  and  an  impression  is  not  a 
thing  easy  to  justify,  so  he  assigns  his  marks  strictly 
according  to  the  correctness  of  each  answer  as  It 
stands.  He  may  have  some  notion  that  one  man 
has  got  his  knowledge  in  a  way  that  will  have 
done  him  good,  and  another  in  a  way  that  will  not, 
but  this  must  not  affect  his  appraisement. 

We  here  come  to  one  of  the  great  difficulties 
of  the  Examination  system.  A  teacher  Is  edu- 
cating a  pupil  by  means  of  geometry  or  by  vicans 
of  the  anal}'sis  of  sentences  In  a  foreign  tongue, 
but  the  education  given  is  not  proportional  to  the 


Action  of  Examinations. 


geometry  or  the  linguistic  knowledge  acquired  in 
the  process.  Two  boys  of  equal  ability  may  be 
taken  in  hand  by  different  teachers,  and  at  the 
end  of  a  certain  time  one  will  be  able  to  write 
out  fifty  propositions  while  another  can  only  write 
out  twenty,  but  the  latter  may  have  got  much  the 
most  education  of  the  two  ;  for  every  proposition 
may  have  been  made  the  basis  of  a  discussion 
which  has  forced  him  to  use  not  only  his  memory 
but  his  mind.  Again,  one  may  have  learned  five 
books  of  an  author  with  a  translation,  and  knows 
no  more  of  the  language  than  when  he  began  ; 
and  another  has  done  one  book  without  such  help, 
and  has  learned  how  to  unravel  a  passage  by  him- 
self. Speaking  more  generally,  one  man  has 
learned  to  apply  his  mind  and  to  work  with 
method,  while  another  can  only  learn  bits  given 
him  by  a  tutor,  and  yet  the  score  of  the  two  may 
be  the  same.  The  result  is  that  a  student  may  be 
trained  to  get  marks,  without  possessing  the  quali- 
ties which  the  marks  are  supposed  to  indicate. 
The  weight  of  so  many  yards  of  cotton  cloth  was 
supposed  to  be  proportioned  to  its  substance,  but 
a  way  has  been  discovered  of  communicating- 
weight  by  the  sizing.  Something  of  this  kind  we 
may  fear  takes  place  now  and  then  in  getting  up 
an   article   for  the   examination    market,  and  the 


54  General  View  of  the 

tlemoralization  thus  produced  is  the  more  griev- 
ous because  the  article  in  question  happens  to  be 
a  young  human  being. 

We  used  to  hear  it  said,  "How  does  it  matter 
in  what  way  the  knowledge  has  been  got  so  that 
it  is  there  ?"  Now  we  know  better.  It  does  make 
all  the  difference  Jioiu  a  man  has  learned  and 
still  more  hoiu  a  boy  has  learned  ;  he  may  get 
the  use  of  his  brains  in  learning,  or  he  may  have 
got  the  results  of  some  kind  of  learning  by  some 
process  which  wants  no  use  of  brains.  He  may 
have  got  a  smattering  of  a  modern  language  by 
some  of  the  processes  which  are  advertised  as 
ensuring  a  power  of  talking  French  in  three 
months  to  "persons  of  the  lowest  capacity."  Be- 
sides there  is  knowledge  and  knowledge ;  there 
is  that  which  has  soaked  in  and  saturated  the 
system  and  that  which  has  been  poured  in  quickly 
and  runs  out  as  fast.  I  set  very  little  value  on 
the  verdict  of  a  single  Examination  in  given  sub- 
jects. I  should  think  far  more  of  the  fact  that 
a  youth  had  gone  creditably  through  a  school 
u'ith  an  able  master,  and  had  been  a  year  in  the 
6th  form,  than  that  he  should  have  obtained  a 
pocket  full  of  certificates  for  Examinations  in  spe- 
cific subjects  away  from  his  school.  The  value 
of  Examinations,  excepting  those  of  the  highest 


Action  of  Exa7ni}iations.  5  5 

kind,  is  far  greater  as  an  engine  in  the  hands  of 
the  teacher  to  keep  the  pupil  to  definite  work 
than  as  a  criterion.  What  they  chiefly  shew  is 
a  power  of  carrying  matter  in  the  memory ;  and 
as  this  power  cannot  have  been  obtained  without 
work,  we  may  infer  indeed  that  the  pupil  has  some 
steadiness  of  purpose — but  the  value  of  this  work 
again  depends  on  circumstances,  for  it  may  have 
been  done  under  pressure,  when  the  boy  was 
under  the  master's  eye,  and  could  not  escape ;  or 
on  the  other  hand  it  may  have  been  done  when 
the  youth  was  in  the  midst  of  temptations  to 
amuse  himself  and  when  he  steadily  exercised  a 
mastery  over  himself.  The  distinction  in  moral 
value  between  work  done  freely  and  w^ork  en- 
forced by  close  supervision  is  one  that  must  be 
kept  well  in  view.  The  superior  value  of  work 
done  at  the  University  over  that  done  at  school 
as  a  guarantee  of  moral  power  rests  very  much 
on  this  distinction,  and  many  of  the  disappoint- 
ments arising  from  the  failure  at  college  of  boys 
who  have  got  scholarships  from  school  arise  from 
the  want  of  this  moral  power. 

I  have  spoken  of  the  growing  aversion  to 
exercise  authority  as  another  cause  which  has 
operated  to  increase  the  demand  for  examinations. 
Children   at    the    present    time    are   treated   with 


56  .  General  Vieiu  of  the 

much  more  indulgence  than  they  formerly  were  ; 
they  are  no  longer  kept  at  a  distance  either  by 
their  fathers  or  their  schoolmasters,  they  are 
encouraged  to  think  that  their  pleasures  and 
amusements  demand  great  consideration,  and  a 
much  more  friendly  and  confidential  relation  is 
established  between  them  and  their  elders.  So 
long  as  this  is  effected  without  any  loss  of  autho- 
rity on  the  part  of  the  parents  it  is  an  unmixed 
good.  But  there  are  many  circumstances  in  the 
present  day  which  are  unfavourable  to  the  main- 
tenance of  this  authority.  There  has  been  much 
wealth  recently  acquired,  by  persons  of  little  culti- 
vation, and  their  sons  soon  see  that  their  educa- 
tion has  oriven  them  an  advantas^e  over  their 
parents.  Again,  many  fathers  who  are  hard 
at  work  and  have  little  opportunity  for  spending 
money  upon  themselves,  delight  in  heaping  in- 
dulgences on  their  children,  and  will  smile  com- 
placently at  the  easy  way  in  which  young  mas- 
ter assumes  that  the  world  about  him  is  to  be 
fashioned  for  his  convenience. 

Moreover,  I  am  not  sure  whether  the  current 
philosophies  of  the  day  have  not  had  an  effect 
in  this  direction.  Viewed  cursorily  they  leave 
many  young  people  with  the  in'ipression  that  they 
are  to  look  solely  to  getting  all  the  enjoyment  out 


Action  of  Exaniinations.  57 


of  existence  they  can.  Now,  if  enjoyment  is  to 
be  the  object  of  life,  the  time  spent  in  hard 
study  by  an  unwilhng  boy  is  a  great  sacrifice  y- 
for  an  uncertain  good  ;  while  in  order  to  become 
a  good  Shot,  a  good  horseman,  or  a  good  cricketer, 
he  need  only  follow  his  favourite  pursuits,  and 
he  gets  an  accomplishment  which  will  be  a  re- 
source to  him  throuoh  life.  Hence  crreat  value 
is  set  on  practical  accomplishments,  and  the 
authority  of  the  parent  does  not  always  act  on 
the  side  of  the  tutors,  who  are  beginning  to 
see  ill  effects  from  the  worship  of  athletic  sports. 
For  all  but  highly  educated  parents  think  in  their 
hearts  pretty  much  as  the  boys  do  about  the 
worthlessness  of  those  studies  which  do  not  yield 
some  accomplishment  to  shew.  Mr  Brown  is  re- 
presented as  saying  to  himself  in  Tom  Brozuus 
School  Days,  "I  might  tell  him  to  work  hard  and 
mind  his  Latin  and  Greek,  but  he  knows  I  don't 
care  a  pin  about  them." 

Thus  the  authority  of  the  parents,  so  far  from 
supporting  that  of  the  schoolmaster,  often  runs 
counter  to  it ;  they  will  keep  their  sons  at  home 
when  the  holidays  are  over,  or  beg  for  them  to 
be  let  to  leave  school  for  a  day  or  two  on  very 
slight  grounds,  perhaps  merely  to  take  part  in 
some  amusement ;  for  there  never  was  a  time,  as 


58  General   Vieiu  of  the 

one  of  our  leading  statesmen  has  told  us,  when 
the  wealthier  classes  in  England  thought  so  much 
of  amusement.  Now  even  if  all  boys  had  fortunes 
waiting  for  them,  and  were  free  from  all  pecuniary 
necessity  for  "  bothering  themselves  about  learn- 
ing," as  they  express  it,  yet  the  schoolmaster 
cannot  see  minds  running  to  waste  without  grief. 
Moreover,  idleness  involves  disorder  in  a  school, 
and  will  j^robably  lead  to  vice,  and  yet  the  mas- 
ter finds  himself  too  weak  to  enforce  diligence ; 
he  experiences  a  great  difficulty  in  making  a  boy 
do  what  he  does  not  like ;  he  invents  new  kinds 
of  study,  in  hopes  that  boys  may  dislike  them  less 
than  the  rigorous  ''  old-fashioned  classics  and  ma- 
thematics;" but  these  "modern  studies"  too  often 
turn  out  to  be  neither  study  nor  play^.  The  idle 
boy  sees  his  advantage  in  taking  to  a  study  where 
he  has  only  to  look  at  experiments  or  to  listen  to 


1  I  cannot  forbear  quoting  the  following  passage  from  the  Autobiography 
of  Mr  John  Stuart  Mill : — "Much  must  be  done,  and  much  must  be  learnt, 
by  children,  for  which  rigid  discipline,  and  known  liability  to  punishment, 
are  indispensable  as  means.  It  is,  no  doubt,  a  very  laudable  effort,  in 
modern  teaching,  to  render  as  mijch  as  possible  of  what  the  young  are 
required  to  learn,  easy  and  interesting  to  them.  But  when  this  principle  is 
jiuslied  to  the  length  of  not  requiring  them  to  learn  anything  but  what  has 
been  made  easy  and  interesting,  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  education  is 
sacrificed.  I  rejoice  in  the  decline  of  the  old  brutal  and  tyrannical  system 
of  teaching,  which,  however,  did  succeed  in  enforcing  habits  of  application; 
but  the  new,  as  it  seems  to  me,  is  training  up  a  race  of  men  who  will  be 
incapable  of  doing  anything  which  is  disagreeable  to  them." 


Action  of  Examinations.  59 

what  is  told  him,  and  where  the  subject  cannot  be 
put  definitely  in  the  shape  of  a  lesson.  Finally,  the 
master  is  driven  either  to  take  up  with  the  idea 
that  with  half  the  boys  intellectual  cultivation  is 
hopeless,  and  that  he  must  content  himself  with 
keeping  them  out  of  harm's  way,  or  he  casts  about 
him  for  some  kind  of  compulsion.  He  then  finds 
that  there  is  hardly  any  kind  of  punishment  to  the 
infliction  of  which  there  is  not  a  grave  objection  on 
some  score,  and  at  last  he  turns  to  Examinations 
to  provide  him  with  the  stimulus  which  school- 
masters used  to  provide  for  themselves,  and  these 
Examinations  are  required  quite  as  much  to  keep 
parents  alive  to  their  duty  as  to  keep  boys  up  to 
their  work.  When  the  Local  Examinations  were 
first  set  on  foot,  a  schoolmaster  observed  to  me, 
"■  I  cannot  afford  to  punish  ;  parents  tell  us  that  we 
are  to  use  moral  suasion,  which  means  that  we 
should  go  down  on  our  knees  to  the  boys,  and 
beg  them  to  learn  their  lessons,  but  we  get  tired 
of  this  posture  after  a  time,  and  so  we  are  very 
grateful  to  you  for  giving  us  these  Examinations 
to  set  before  the  boys." 

Hence  tutors  and  schoolmasters  have  urged 
the  Universities  to  set  up  various  kinds  of  Ex- 
aminations which  shall  act  upon  the  mass  of  boys. 
The  Examination  of  an  entire  school  in  the  whole 


6o  General   View  of  the 

of  the  school-work  is  a  most  wholesome  and  effec- 
tive proceeding  :  it  leaves  the  master  free  to  direct 
the  studies  as  he  thinks  fit  :  it  gives  a  sanction  to 
the  course  of  work  he  has  marked  out,  and  it 
keeps  him  and  his  assistants  on  the  alert.  Unfor- 
tunately, however,  an  Examination  cannot  now  be 
floated  even  in  school  on  mere  authority  or  from 
the  love  of  distinction.  Boys  will  not  work  merely 
for  the  approbation  of  masters ;  there  must  be 
something  to  be  got  by  it ;  the  consequence  is, 
that  some  kind  of  Certificate  has  to  be  given, 
and  some  market  value  must  be  attached  to  the 
Certificate ;  this  being  done,  it  will  be  said  to  be 
unfair  to  confine  the  advantage  attached  to  this 
Certificate  to  those  who  are  at  certain  schools. 
Hence  it  becomes  necessary  to  open  the  Examina- 
tion to  all  comers,  and  the  position  then  becomes 
altoofether  chant^ed — for  instead  of  the  Examina- 
tion  giving  a  sanction  to  a  particular  kind  of  teach- 
ing, and  being  subordinated  to  it,  as  is  the  case 
in  the  Examination  of  a  school,  it  becomes  simply 
a  challenge  held  up  to  the  world :  boys  will  be 
sent  to  certain  trainers  not  to  be  educated  but 
to  be  got  through  ;  with  these  trainers  the  teach- 
ing has  to  be  subordinated  to  the  given  Exa- 
mination, the  old  struggle  of  "crammer"  and 
"examiner"  is  renewed,  and  the  tone  of  the  tuition 


Action  of  Iixamuialions.  6i 


as  well  as  the  authority  of  the  teacher  with  his  pupil 
suffers  accordingly. 

It  may  be  asked  whether  Qualifying  Exa- 
minations are  found  necessary  in  other  countries 
in  order  to  strengthen  the  hands  of  the  school- 
master. 

The  answer  must  be,  that  in  France  the  higher 
education  is  directed  to  certain  qualifying  Ex- 
aminations, namely  those  for  the  brrjct  of  Bache- 
lier  es  Lettres,  and  Bachelier  es  Sciences ;  these 
bar  the  way  to  the  professions  and  to  most  de- 
partments of  the  public  service.  It  should  also 
be  observed  that  the  Lyceums  which  prepare  lads 
for  these  Examinations  are  under  government 
control,  and  in  these  establishments,  although 
corporal  punishment  is  forbidden,  other  inflictions 
are  very  frequent,  and  such  as  few  English  parents 
would  allow  their  sons  to  be  subjected  to.  The 
withdrawal  of  a  certain  portion  of  the  daily  food, 
never  too  ample  in  a  Lyceum,  is  the  form  of 
punishment  mostly  in  vogue.  My  impression  is, 
that  parents  in  France  have  lost  their  authority 
over  their  children  more  than  they  have  in 
England,  and  I  doubt  whether  tlie  interference 
of  the  state  through  its  Lyceums  and  its  INIaisons 
Paternelles,  which  latter  are  positive  prisons  for 
unruly    boys,    ma)-    not    really    weaken    parental 


62  Gefieral  View  of  the 

authority  by  leading  both  parents  and  boys  to 
look  to  something  external  to,  and  more  stringent 
than,  domestic  government.  Neither  do  French 
parents,  as  a  rule,  value  learning  for  its  own  sake 
more  than  we  do  in  England.  1  have  seen  bro- 
cJmres  on  Education  which  represent  French  pa- 
rents as  regarding  the  state  Examinations  with 
terror  and  hatred. 

The  result  of  the  French  system  has  been 
unsatisfactory,  but  that  of  Germany  may  be  con- 
sidered successful.  Parents  are  there  far  more 
on  the  side  of  learning  than  they  are  in  England 
or  in  France  ;  but,  so  far  from  doing  without 
coercion  for  the  idle,  we  shall  find  it  supplied  in  a 
very  stringent  shape. 

Education  in  Germany  is  much  more  in  the 
hands  of  the  state  than  it  is  with  us,  or  than  the 
temper  of  the  English  people  at  present  would 
allow  it  to  be.  A  boy  is  pretty  much  taken  out 
of  the  hands  of  his  parents.  In  order  for  a  boy 
in  Prussia  to  qualify  himself  for  a  profession  or 
for  the  principal  branches  of  the  public  service, 
he  must  go  regularly  through  the  classes  of  a 
(iymnasium.  Hence  some  of  our  great  difficulties 
do  not  there  present  themselves,  or  do  so  in  a 
much  less  degree.  There  are  few  irregularly 
educated   youths;    there  are   none   answering  to 


Action  of  Exa7ninatioiis.  6 


J 


those  who  come  at  the  age  of  i6  and  17  from 
AustraHa  or  New  Zealand  very  moderately  pre- 
pared, and  who  need  to  be  got  ready  for  the 
Universities  or  for  some  Examination  which 
stands  at  the  entrance  of  a  Profession  in  a  very 
short  time ;  neither  does  the  state  feel  called  upon 
to  avoid  giving  an  advantage  to  those  who  have 
been  educated  in  a  particular  way;  a  necessity 
which  with  us  causes  one  of  the  main  difficulties 
in  the  Examination  for  the  Indian  Civil  Service 
appointments.  The  Examinations  in  Prussia  have 
all  reference  to  an  established  course  of  instruc- 
tion, and  in  many  cases  the  place  of  a  youth  in 
the  classes  of  the  Gymnasium,  and  the  report  of 
his  general  Avork,  are  taken  into  account  together 
with  the  results  of  the  Examination  itself. 

As  regards  coercion,  the  schoolmaster  is  sup- 
plied with  a  more  powerful  engine  to  enforce  indus- 
try than  has  ever  been  placed  in  the  hands  of  any 
other  scholastic  body.  This  is  furnished  by  the 
compulsory  military  service.  Unless  a  youth  can 
pass  an  Examination  to  qualify  him  for  the  highest 
class  but  one  in  the  school,  and  unless  he  continue 
in  that  class,  conducting  himself  with  diligence  for 
a  year,  he  cannot  obtain  the  privilege  awarded  to 
educated  persons  of  serving  in  the  army  for  a 
sinirle  vear  instead  of  three,  and  that  in  the  town 


64  General  View  of  the 

where  he  may  be  Hving — but  he  must  serve  for 
three  years  in  a  barrack  as  a  common  soldier. 
This  is  a  great  terror,  and  it  keeps  dull  youths 
working  at  school  in  perfect  obedience,  long  after 
the  time  when  they  would  have  left  school  in 
England,  The  masters  complain  that  75  per 
cent,  of  the  boys  leave  directly  the  desired  ex- 
emption is  obtained. 

The  fact  that  the  German  system  has  been  on 
the  whole  successful  while  that  of  France  has 
proved  a  failure,  illustrates  the  working  of  a  very 
important  principle,  to  which  I  have  frequently 
alluded.  In  Prussia,  the  Examination  is  sub- 
ordinate to  the  teaching,  while  in  France  the 
teaching  is  subordinate  to  the  Examination.  The 
Examinations  in  a  German  Gymnasium  are  con- 
ducted by  the  teachers  themselves,  though  in  the 
presence  and  under  the  control  of  a  government 
official.  Thus  the  independence  of  the  teacher, 
his  self-respect  and  sense  of  responsibility,  are 
maintained,  while  sufficient  external  supervision 
is  introduced  to  prevent  laxity  or  collusion.  In 
France,  on  the  other  hand,  a  minute  programme 
is  put  forth  by  the  government,  and  the  busi- 
ness of  a  Professor  at  the  Lyceum  is  simply  to 
prepare  pupils  to  pass  in  an  P^xamination  in  the 
subjects  thus  dcfinilcl)-  marked  cut.      In  the  con- 


Action  of  Examinalions.  65 

duct  of  this  Examination  the  Professors  have  no 
part,  neither  can  they  readily  make  themselves 
heard,  if  they  desire  any  modification  of  the  pre- 
scribed course.  '*  We  are  not  the  educating  body," 
say  the  Professors,  "the  State  constructs  the  ma- 
chine of  education,  and  it  only  gives  us  a  handle 
to  turn."  In  all  systematic  education  there  must 
be  indeed  a  mechanical  organization,  but  the  vital 
element  is  free  human  action, — the  main  oood 
which  the  pupil  gets  is  from  contact  with  a 
superior  mind.  If  the  teacher  can  give  no  play 
to  the  bent  of  his  own  intellect,  if  he  have  only  to 
drill  the  pupil  in  a  prescribed  course,  if  his  own 
thoughts  or  views  can  find  no  place  in  the  Exami- 
nation, he  will  not  care  to  occupy  his  pupil  with 
them,  and  the  pupil  will  not  attend  to  them  if  he 
does ;  so  after  a  time  the  teacher  will  keep  his 
thoughts  to  himself,  or  possibly  he  may  cease  to 
think  ;  at  any  rate  the  pupil  will  only  come  into 
contact  with  the  husk  of  the  man,  and  not  with 
the  real  human  being  himself. 

It  is  one  of  the  drawbacks  to  the  use  of 
Examinations  in  general  that  they  tend  to  crush 
spontaneity  both  in  the  pupil  and  the  teacher;  and 
this  tendency  is  far  greater  when  the  Examination 
is  supreme  and  external  to  the  teaching,  than 
when  the  teaching  and  examining  bodies  are 
L.  5 


66  General  View  of  the 

one,    or  when  in    some  way    each  can  influence 
the  other. 

The    French    have    exaggerated   and    perfec- 
tionated  the  mechanical  element  in  education  ;  the 
minister  of  Public  Instruction  can  boast  that  he 
can  tell  at  any  moment  what  lesson  every  boy  in 
France  is  learning,    but    in  so   doing  they  have 
destroyed  the  human  element,  and  they  are  be- 
ginning to  find  that  it  is  only  men  that  can  make 
men,  and  that  a  system  of  machinery  worked  by 
wires  from  a  centre,  however  ingeniously  it  may 
be  constructed,  turns  out  but  poor  imitations  of 
humanity.      How  fully  the  Athenians  grasped  the 
truth  on  which  I  have  just  dwelt,  is  seen  from  their 
word  for  attendance  on  a  great  man's  teaching,  it 
is  avvovo-ia — it  was   the  improvement  to  be  got 
from  /lis  co^iipany  which  was  the  first  thing  they 
thought  of. 

We  find  then  that  Examinations  are  means  by 
which  the  motive  powers  of  competition  and  of 
the  need  of  working  to  win  bread,  are  brought  to 
bear  upon  young  people.  The  Examinations,  it 
must  be  recollected,  are  not  motive  powers  them- 
selves, but  only  instruments  by  which  some  other 
power  is  brought  into  play.  As  I  have  already 
said,  boys  ask  •'  What  is  to  be  got  by  the  Exami- 
nations?"    They  want  some  distinction  or  some 


Action  of  Examinations.  67 

exemption  or  some  professional  advantage,  some- 
thing in  fact  to  shew  for  their  labour,  and  there 
are  many  parents  who  view  these  matters  much  as 
their  sons  do.  Some  young  men  indeed  will  be 
actuated  in  the  pursuit  of  learning  by  ambition, 
some  by  a  sense  of  duty,  some  by  a  genuine  desire 
of  improvement.  Where  the  study  results  imme- 
diately in  professional  skill,  or  in  some  other  capa- 
bility of  which  the  young  man  sees  the  advan- 
tage, it  may  pretty  well  be  left  to  take  care  of 
itself:  with  such  studies  I  am  here  but  little  con- 
cerned, as  I  confine  myself  to  considering  the  case 
of  a  liberal  education. 

But  when  we  come  to  consider  the  induce- 
ment towards  obtaining  a  high  general  cultivation, 
we  shall  find  there  will  be  little  prospect  of  this 
falling  to  the  lot  of  any  considerable  class  in  this 
country,  or  indeed  in  any  country,  unless  some 
outlay  is  incurred  to  recompense  persons  for  ob- 
taining it.  In  England  this  want  is  met  by  the 
rewards  and  endowments  of  the  Universities,  as  it 
is  in  Germany  by  the  large  number  of  Professor- 
ships and  other  emoluments  open  to  persons  ui 
high  cultivation.  In  the  German  empire  alone 
there  are  near  1000  salaried  Professors  in  Univer- 
sities. In  Austria  and  Switzerland  there  are  also 
many.     A  chapter  will  be  given  to  the  subject  of 


68  General  Vieiv  of  the 

Fellowships  and  Scholarships,  and  I  shall  perhaps 
have  occasion  hereafter  to  contrast  the  induce- 
ments to  study  held  out  in  England  and  in  Ger- 
many^. 

It  is  often  asked,  ''Why  should  you  pay  a  man 


■■  It  will  be  sufficient  here,  in  order  to  shew  that  if  you  are  to  have  a 
larger  cultivated  class,  you  must  make  it  worth  people's  while  to  obtain  cul- 
tivation— to  call  attention  to  the  length  of  the  list  of  candidates  for  honours 
at  those  universities  where  there  are  emoluments,  and  to  contrast  it  with 
the  scanty  roll  at  those  where  there  are  none.  It  may  be  said  also  that  of 
the  few  candidates  for  honours  at  the  scantily  endowed  universities,  a  large 
jiroportion  are  buoyed  up  by  the  hope  of  obtaining  a  reward  subsequently 
at  Oxford  or  Cambridge;  thus  the  capital,  so  to  say,  of  these  two  universi- 
ties helps  to  work  all  the  others  in  Great  Britain. 

In  Germany,  where  public  life  and  professional  careers  offer  poorer  pros- 
pects than  with  us,  a  larger  number  of  young  men  of  ability  adopt  learning 
as  a  profession  ;  but  the  number  of  persons  who  have  high  attainments  in  a 
branch  of  science  or  literature,  without  looking  to  this  as  their  profession, 
would,  I  think,  be  found  to  be  less  tlian  with  us  in  England.  This  has 
been  observed  to  me  in  Germany,  both  by  natives  and  English  residents, 
and  I  see  the  same  stated  in  the  evidence  given  by  Dr  Perry,  who  was  for 
many  years  at  Bonn,  before  the  Select  Committee  on  University  Educa- 
tion in  the  year  1867  (pp.  266,  7).  Statesmen  in  Germany  do  not  write 
on  Greek  literature,  or  on  the  astronomy  of  the  ancients,  or  translate 
Homer  into  verse.  In  no  other  country  than  England  are  there  persons  of 
so  high  an  order  of  cultivation  writing  for  the  public  press  and  for 
periodicals.  The  advantage  of  this  to  the  public  is  incalculable ;  it 
nationalizes  the  results  of  our  educational  foundations  in  an  effective 
way. 

A  German  once  observed  to  me,  on  taking  up  an  English  magazine 
which  I  had  with  me,  I  think  it  was  the  Cornhill, — "We  have  nothing 
like  this,  and  we  have  no  class  of  persons  suited  to  write  anything  of  the 
sort.  We  have  endless  scientific  journals ;  they  are  written  by  men  of 
learning  for  men  of  learning,  but  we  have  not  the  class  of  cultivated 
gentlemen  who  will  put  good  criticism  or. the  results  of  science  into  an 
attractive  form,  and  the  fertility  of  you  Englishmen  in  works  of  fiction,  and 
well-written  books  of  travel,  is  to  us  surprising." 


Action  of  Examinations.  69 


for  doing  what  is  for  his  own  good  ?"  and  the 
answer  is  that  the  country  benefits  by  the  exist- 
ence of  a  considerable  class  of  highly  educated 
persons,  and  that  you  would  not  have  this  class 
if  you  did  not  pay  for  it ;  for  a  liberal  education 
certainly  does  not  bring  a  sure  return  in  the  way 
of  "getting  on."  A  millionaire  has  often  made 
his  way  without  a  high  education,  and  probably 
would  not  have  made  more  money  if  he  had  had 
this  advantage.  Again,  the  extent  of  every  branch 
of  study  is  increasing ;  time,  labour  and  money 
must  be  invested  freely  in  order  to  acquire  high 
attainments,  and  young  men,  or  rather  parents, 
will  not  enofao^e  in  such  an  investment  without  a 
good  prospect  of  its  securing  some  palpable  ad- 
vantages. A  father  will  say^  "  I  should  be  glad 
for  my  son  to  be  an  accomplished  scholar  for  his 
own  sake,  just  as  I  should  like  my  daughter  to 
play  the  harp,  but  I  cannot  afford  it  as  a  luxury. 
Shew  me  that  my  money  will  be  spent  as  an 
investment,  and  I  will  consider  it,  I  shall  be 
ready  to  make  some  personal  sacrifice  on  account 
of  the  pleasure  I  shall  find  in  my  son's  profit 
and  distinction  ;  but  in  educating  my  son  I  must 
first  see  my  way  to  his  getting  his  bread."  The 
question  of  the  proper  proportions  of  the  funds  to 
be  spent  on  rewards  and  on  the  other  functions 


General  View  of  the 


"vvhich  colleofe  endowments  fulfil  will  be  dealt  with 
in  another  chapter. 

A  political  element  also  enters  into  the  ques- 
tion, for  if  it  were  not  for  such  endowments  high 
general  cultivation  must  become  nearly  the  mono- 
poly of  the  wealthy  class.  Now  such  cultivation 
makes  itself  more  felt  perhaps  in  a  political  career 
than  in  any  other,  especially  in  the  higher  part 
of  the  career :  a  self-educated  man,  though  h'e  may 
have  great  force  of  character  and  much  power 
of  seizing  on  salient  points,  usually  fails  in  certain 
particulars — fails  in  the  power  of  amalgamation 
w^ith  others,  for  Instance,  or  in  that  of  looking 
readily  at  a  great  whole  from  different  points  of 
view,  and  these  deficiencies  are  most  apparent  in 
the  highest  positions.  Hence  if  our  statesmen 
are  not  to  come  in  an  undue  proportion  from  the 
upper  strata,  we  must  let  down  shafts  by  which 
the  material  which  is  below  can  come  to  the  sur- 
face— such  shafts  our  University  endowments 
supply.  The  political  feeling  of  the  present  day 
brings  very  forcibly  to  men's  minds  the  need  of 
such  shafts  or  ladders ;  public  attention  is  much 
directed  to  the  machinery  by  which  they  are 
worked,  and  consequently  it  is  especially  directed 
to  Examinations,  which  are  the  most  important 
engines  employed. 


Action  of  Examinaiions.  7 1 

It  will  be  worth  while  to  turn  aside  for  a 
moment  to  the  economical  aspect  of  the  question  ; 
for  although  the  matter  will  be  fully  discussed 
later  on,  it  will  be  well  to  have  some  clear  ideas 
on  this  point  to  carry  with  us  in  the  histo- 
rical notices  which  will  be  given  in  the  next 
chapter. 

I  will  take  as  an  illustration  an  apparently  in- 
congruous thing — a  cattle-show.  We  have  heard 
lately  that  a  short-horned  cow  has  been  sold  for 
;/^5000.  She  represents  ^5*000  worth  of  thought, 
risk,  and  outlay,  but  her  milk  and  her  calves  will 
never  bring  ^5000  to  her  owner.  How  then  is 
it  worth  any  one's  while  to  call  her  into  existence  ? 
It  is  so  because  she  can  win  this  money  and  more 
in  prizes  at  agricultural  shows.  Now  these  prizes 
are  subscribed  for  by  persons  interested  in  agricul- 
ture because  they  think  they  get  a  return  for 
their  money  by  improving  the  breed  of  cattle ; 
by  calling  into  being  a  race  of  animals  which  will 
carry  much  flesh  or  give  much  milk  on  cheap 
food,  or  fulfil  some  other  conditions  highly  valued 
*by  the  grazier.  What  then  we  have  to  shew  for 
the  money  contributed  is  not  only  this  cow  or  her 
progeny,  but  a  large  number  of  cows  very  nearl)- 
as  good,  which  have  been  bred  in  the  hope  that 
one  of  them  mi^ht  turn  out  a  first-rate  animal  : 


72  General  View  of  the 

the  existence  of  these  materially  improves  the 
cattle  and  increases  the  wealth  of  the  country.  So 
when  asked  what  we  have  to  shew  for  fellowships 
and  scholarships,  we  point  not  only  to  the  fortu- 
nate competitors,  but  to  the  general  high  standard 
of  attainment  caused  by  the  competition  itself; 
we  point  not  only  to  the  honour  lists  above-named, 
but  to  the  sixth  forms  of  the  various  schools' : 
these  would  be  smaller,  and  the  subjects  taught 
less  advanced,  if  there  were,  so  to  say,  no  market 
for  high  attainments :  we  might  further  point  to  the 
many  cultivated  persons  who,  some  in  their  pro- 
fessions and  some  by  writing  for  the  press,  are 
keeping  up  an  elevated  tone  in  English  social  life. 
These  advantages  result  from  the  prizes  of  learn- 
ing, just  as  the  improvement  in  the  breed  of  cattle 
is  effected  by  the  money  subscribed  as  prizes  in 
the  shows. 

We  may  further  consider  how  this  money  Is 
distributed  :  it  does  not  really  all  go  to  the  for- 
tunate competitor,  for  he  may  have  had  to  spend 
a  larger  sum  in  getting  his  education  than  he  other- 
wise would,  so  that  part  of  it  goes  to  the  tutors* 
and  to  the  schoolmasters  in  the  higher  schools. 
Moreover,  this  is  one  of  those  cases  in  which,  like 
mining  speculations,  the  gambling  spirit  enters,  so 
that  far  more  money  is  spent  in  reading  for  fellow- 


Action  of  Examinations.  73 

ships  and  Indian  Civil  Service  appointments  than 
is  received  from  them ;  and  thus  the  educational 
profession  benefits  immensely  by  the  impulse 
caused  by  these  emoluments.  Indeed,  we  may 
say,  that  the  special  tutors  for  the  Indian  Service 
are  in  part  paid  by  the  Government,  for  a  parent 
anxious  to  get  an  appointment  for  his  son  has  to 
invest  ^300  more  in  his  son's  education  than 
he  otherwise  would,  and  he  looks  to  the  amount 
of  the  salary,  and  to  the  prospects  in  India,  to 
repay  the  outlay  and  the  risk,  so  that  if  the 
stipend  had  been  originally  merely  what  a  man 
would  do  the  work  for,  the  government  would 
have  had  to  raise  it  when  they  introduced  the 
system  of  Competitive  Examination. 

It  appears,  from  comparing  the  published 
marks  of  the  successful  candidates  for  some  years 
past,  that  the  attainments  of  those  who  succeed 
are  gradually  declining  :  the  cause  of  this  may  be 
the  increasing  cost  of  the  special  preparation. 
Parents  can  find  something  better  for  a  clever 
boy  at  less  outlay. 

There  is  one  danger  which  meets  us  in  Ex- 
aminations, although  it  is  not  confined  to  them, 
which  I  must  point  out  here,  as  we  shall  fre- 
quently have  to  guard  against  it.  Whenever 
acquirements  are   to   be   turned   to  account   in  a 


74  General  View  oj  the 

particular  way,  either  by  being  displayed  in  an 
Examination  or  otherwise,  the  form  which  these 
acquirements  will  take  will  be  affected  by  the 
mode  in  which  they  are  to  find  their  reward.  In 
old  times  the  glory  of  scholars  was  to  maintain  a 
thesis  in  a  disputation  ;  they  went  on  disputing 
in  schools  all  their  lives,  and  we  see  that  all  their 
learning  was  cast  into  a  dialectic  form;  they 
sought  not  so  much  to  attain  truth  as  to  be 
irrefragable  :  this  spirit  may  be  traced  in  much  of 
the  literature  of  the  middle  ages.  So  in  our  time 
there  is  a  danger  that  some  of  our  studies  may  be 
thrown  into  a  conventional  form  by  the  influence 
of  Examinations. 

We  might  study  a  subject  in  one  way  if 
we  wanted  to  keep  it  by  us  as  a  possession, 
and  in  a  very  different  way  if  we  wanted  only 
to  answer  questions  on  it,  or  work  problems  in 
it  on  paper,  and  that  in  a  given  and  very  limited 
time.  Again,  a  subject  taken  on  one  side  may 
be  much  less  adapted  for  Examination  than  when 
taken  on  another ;  one  part  of  it  or  one  way 
of  treating  it  may  yield  examples  or  illustra- 
tions, or  be  made  the  means  of  shewing  that 
the  student  has  really  assimilated  it.  This  side 
of  the  subject  will  be  the  favourite  field  of  Exa- 
miners, and  the  attention  of  the  student  will  there- 


Action  of  Exammations.  75 

fore  be  turned  in  this  direction,  and  other  parts 
of  the  subject,  which  may  be  no  less  important, 
but  which  may  yield  no  principles  which  can  be 
readily  applied,  and  be  in  other  respects  ill  suited 
for  Examination,  will  be  comparatively  neglected. 
The  writing  of  an  essay  under  Examination  would 
seem  to  be  a  capital  means  of  finding  what  there 
is  in  a  man's  mind,  and  if  none  of  the  candidates 
had  been  trained  for  such  an  Examination,  their 
productions  might  afford  some  criterion  of  their 
mental  fertility  and  powers  of  expression,  but  my 
experience  on  this  point  quite  brings  me  to  agree 
with  Mr  Mark  Pattison^  in  his  mistrust  of  essays 
produced  in  Examinations  when  young  men  are 
trained  to  write  them.  Such  training,  he  observes, 
is  apt  to  lead  to  the  ready  appropriation  of  the  re- 
sults of  "  modern  thouo^ht "  without  eoingf  throuQfh 
the  process  of  thinking :  he  shews  that  the  effect  of 
this  is  enervating,  and  says  that  the  teaching  of 
the  Honour  Schools  at  Oxford  (in  1868)  seems 
directed  to  fit  men  to  write  pointed  but  shallow 
leading  articles. 

Considered  even  as  a  test  of  capacity  of 
writing,  the  production  of  a  dissertation  under 
Examination  is  not  quite  satisfactory ;  by  forcing 

*  Suggestions  on  Academical  Organization,  Mark  Pattibon,  B.D.     Edin- 
burgh, Edmonston  and  Douglas,  pp.  7-94-5. 


76  General  View  of  Examinations, 

a  man  to  write  on  the  spur  of  the  moment  without 
authorities  to  which  he  may  refer,  we  are  trying 
him  under  very  exceptional  conditions,  and  we  are 
therefore  calHng  into  existence  a  special  and  parti- 
cular art:  whereas  our  object  should  be  to  see  what 
the  man  could  produce  if  he  sat  down  to  write  an 
essay  under  no  extraordinary  circumstances,  but 
with  the  usual  opportunities  for  reference  and  re- 
vision. If  these  could  be  allowed,  an  essay  might 
be  made  an  excellent  test  of  certain  qualities  of 
mind.     To  this  point  I  shall  have  to  recur. 


CHAPTER   III. 

HISTORICAL    NOTICES.     DISPUTATIONS. 

From  the  History  of  Universities  we  may  gather 
much  that  will  be  of  use  to  us  in  pursuing  our 
subject.  It  would  carry  me  beyond  my  limits  to 
enter  upon  a  connected  account  of  the  growth  of 
Examinations;  I  can  only  deal  with  a  few  stages 
of  their  progress,  and  I  must  take  those  which 
will  serve  best  to  "point  a  moral,"  or  to  bring  out 
some  of  the  more  general  principles  which  govern 
their  workinof. 

We  have  already  seen  enough  to  shew  what 
we  might  have  expected  beforehand,  that  as  soon 
as  by  means  of  an  Examination  or  any  equiva- 
lent contrivance  intellectual  acquirements  may  be 
turned  into  honour  or  profit^ — as  soon,  that  is,  as 
learning  through  such  instrumentality  acquires  a 
directly  exchangeable  value — then  its  production 
and  distribution  will  be  governed  by  certain  laws. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  iith  century  we  find 


78  Historical  Notices. 

among  the  south-western  natidns  of  Christendom 
all  the  tokens  of  renewed  youth.  The  spirit  of 
that  time  stands  in  strong  contrast  with  the  listless 
despondency  which  had  prevailed  a  century  or  two 
before. 

The  successive  deludes  of  semi -barbarian 
hordes  had  then  ceased  ;  people  could  look  on 
their  country  as  their  own — probably,  too,  the 
mixture  of  races  which  had  ensued  from  these 
invasions  had  improved  the  physical  vigour  and 
the  energy  of  the  populations. 

Lastly,  there  was  a  cause  in  operation  to  which 
some  writers  attach  much  importance.  Christen- 
dom was  recovering  from  the  scare  of  the  im- 
pending destruction  of  the  world ;  the  terrible 
thousandth  year  had  passed  away  without  any 
threateninirs  of  universal  conflao'ration.  So  lonir 
as  people  were  looking  to  the  extinction  of  all 
things  utter  prostration  naturally  prevailed,  it  was 
of  no  use  to  cultivate  the  land,  still  less  to  educate 
the  young,  if  the  world  were  on  the  brink  of 
destruction. 

From  this  there  came  a  great  rebound.  The 
world  woke  out  of  its  hideous  nightmare  with  a 
belief  that  a  great  future  was  in  store  for  it.  It 
had  not  been  spared  for  nothing.  The  failure  of 
the  expectation   threw   no   doubt  or  discredit  on 


I 


Disputations.  79 

religion.  The  world,  it  was  said,  had  had  its 
eKistence  renewed  to  be  a  scene  for  the  triumpli 
of  the  Faith.  Happily  a  healthy  tone  was,  in  this 
way,  given  to  religious  sentiment.  To  believe 
that  the  world  was  spared  for  great  things  under 
God's  guidance,  and  that  the  men  of  that  day  were 
given  the  duty  of  setting  these  great  things  afoot, 
could  not  but  have  an  invigorating  and  elevating 
effect* 

Great  enterprises  were  undertaken,  monas- 
teries were  founded  or  restored,  vast  cathedrals 
were  planned  and  commenced,  and  institutions 
which  were  to  mould  the  manners  of  future  eene- 
rations,  feudalism,  chivalry,  and  universities,  sprang 
up.  The  last-named  were  not  perfected  by 
founders  and  laid  down  according  to  a  design 
made  out  beforehand — they  did  not  embody  the 
ideas  of  one  man  or  of  a  set  of  men — they  grew 
up,  because  a  need  had  made  itself  felt  among 
people  who  had  energy  enough  to  set  about 
meeting  it  in  a  way  that  should  serve  both  their 
own  time,  and  time  to  come. 

A  boy  plans  his  career,  and  in  his  own  mind 
he  is  to  be  young  all  through,  only  bigger,  and 
all  about  him  is  to  be  always  the  same  as  it  is 
then.  The  generation  I  am  speaking  of  worked 
in  a  spirit   not  unlike  this,  and  it  argued   youth 


8o  Historical  Notices. 

and  strong  vitality  in  the  race.  They  never 
doubted  but  that  the  great  things  which  they  set 
going  would  last,  and  grow,  and  be  of  the  same 
service  to  posterity  which  they  were  to  them. 
This  confidence  lay  so  deep  in  them,  that  it  was 
free  from  all  self-consciousness ;  it  could  not  have 
come  from  a  want  of  familiarity  with  violence  or 
danger,  for  men  then  went  with  their  lives  in  their 
hands.  There  were  wars  and  calamities  con- 
stantly about  them,  but  these  only  troubled  the 
surface  of  things,  and  the  foundation  of  what  we 
call  "society"  rested  in  the  depths.  Doubt  was 
then  unknown,  or  at  least  hidden  ;  religious  belief 
was  unquestioned  and  supreme,  and  this  lay  at 
the  foundation  of  all  their  structures.  Districts 
might  change  their  masters,  and  individuals  were 
subject  to  sudden  changes  of  fortune  and  laid 
their  account  to  meeting  with  them,  but  it  was 
taken  for  granted  that  the  orders  of  chivalry,  the 
monasteries,  and  the  universities  were  part  of 
the  necessary  order  of  things.  Men  will  always 
invest  their  interest  and  their  energy  in  what 
gives  promise  of  lasting,  and  what  will  enable 
them  to  carry  their  views  foj^ward,  and  so  they 
threw  their  whole  hearts  in  those  days  into  the 
corporate  existence  in  which  they  were  bound  up  ; 
they  could  conceive  that  as  going  on  in  the  way 


I 


DisptUations.  8 1 

they  had  known  it,  after  they  and  their  children 
should  have  perished.  So  too  contrariwise,  when 
individuals  can  live  in  assured  comfort,  but  insti- 
tutions are  threatened,  the  temptation  is  not  to 
care  about  the  latter  overmuch,  but  to  concentrate 
interest  on  personal  or  family  well-being. 

Early  in  the  1 1  th  century,  security  and  pros- 
perity were  in  some  degree  restored  to  Italy; 
property  increased,  and  the  need  of  law  to  regu- 
late transactions  was  soon  felt ;  people  bethought 
them  of  the  codes,  and  of  the  works  of  the  jurists 
which  had  formed  the  great  boast  of  Imperial 
Rome.  The)^  had  been  forgotten,  but  a  company 
of  students  at  Bologna  devoted  themselves  to  the 
revival  of  this  study,  much  as  a  body  of  persons 
might  now  form  a  club  or  a  society  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  some  science  or  art. 

After  a  time  (a.  d.  1158)  this  school  of  Law 
obtained  a  charter  of  incorporation  from  the  Em- 
peror Erederic  I,  which  emancipated  the  students 
from  the  municipal  jurisdiction  and  gave  them 
courts  of  their  own.  Students  resorting  from  all 
quarters  to  Bologna  formed  a  society  which  had 
nothing  in  common  with  the  people  of  the  town  in 
which  they  happened  to  be  residing,  and  by  whom 
they  were  probably  looked  on  as  a  prey.  This 
made  them  seek  special  privileges,  and  in  those 
L.  6 


82  Historical  Notices. 

times  it  was  quite  usual  for  the  jurisdiction  under 
which  a  man  lived  to  be  dependent  on  personal 
and  not  local  considerations.  Hence  arose  that 
Studenten  Recht,  and  immunity  of  the  student  from 
municipal  courts  which  we  still  find  in  Germany, 
though  it  is  disappearing  in  England.  I  may  here 
notice  that  imiversitas  is  simply  the  Latin  word 
for  a  corporation,  meaning  "  the  whole  regarded  as 
one,"  and  that  it  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
the  object  of  the  corporation — it  might  be  applied 
to  a  civic  guild — it  has  obtained  its  special  mean- 
ing from  the  circumstance  that  incorporated  bodies 
of  learned  men  were  the  most  dignified  corpora- 
tion,— the  Q.or'i^ox2X\onpa7^  excellence — in  early  times. 
I  should  hardly  have  mentioned  this  fact,  now 
very  generally  known,  but  we  occasionally  still 
find  writers  who  fancy  that  the  name  university 
implies  universality  in  the  range  of  subjects  taught. 
Bologna,  we  see,  was  a  tiniversitas  while  as  yet 
only  a  school  of  law ;  theology  and  medicine  were 
introduced  later.  We  get  glimpses  of  the  ques- 
tioning of  students  in  these  early  days,  and  even 
centuries  before,  in  schools  of  grammar  and  rhe- 
toric, but  as  we  cannot  find  that  anything  ex- 
cepting praise  or  punishment  resulted  from  it,  we 
may  conclude  that  examining  was  then  nothing 
more  than  catechetical  teaching. 


I 


Disputations.  83 

As  Boloena  had  set  afoot  an  isolated  school 
of  law,  so  at  Paris  shortly  after  a  school  of  "artes" 
arose  ;  to  this  was  soon  added  one  of  Theology 
which  became  the  leading  faculty. 

All  the  Universities  of  northern  Europe  were 
framed  after  that  of  Paris.  The  similarity  of  usages, 
and  the  general  use  of  the  Latin  tongue,  tended  to 
bring  about  a  freemasonry  of  learned  men,  which 
had  influences  to  which  I  can  only  direct  attention 
as  I  pass  by.  A  student  from  Oxford  or  Cam- 
bridge might  enter  the  schools  of  Paris,  or  Prague, 
or  Cracow,  and  find  disputations  carried  on  in  the 
form  with  which  he  was  familiar,  and  the  same 
authorities  cited  as  settling  a  question.  A  Doctor 
at  one  university  was  a  Doctor  everywhere.  The 
authority  for  granting  the  diploma  was  supposed  to 
emanate  from  the  Pope  and  thus  to  hold  good 
throucjh  Christendom.  Our  Lambeth  decrees 
represent  this  Papal  power  inherited  by  our  Pri- 
mate. Even  now,  a  Doctor  is  created  at  Bonn 
and  elsewhere  in  Germany  with  the  same  cere- 
monies, the  presenting  with  the  book  and  the  ring, 
the  placing  the  cap  on  the  head,  and  the  accolade, 
and  in  the  very  same  form  of  words  with  which 
Doctors  were  created  at  Cambridge  twenty  years 
ago. 

The   fact   that    Paris    began   with    arts,    and 

6—2 


84  Historical  Notices. 

Bologna  with  law,  which  comes  to  this,  that 
the  school  at  Paris  was  framed  originally  with  a 
view  to  a  liberal  education,  and  that  of  Bologna 
to  a  technical  one,  had  a  consequence  of  Avhich 
we  still  trace  the  effects. 

A  student  in  law  would  generally  be  older 
then  a  student  in  arts ;  besides  this  he  had  a 
stronger  inducement  to  learn,  he  wanted  to  qualify 
himself  for  practice ;  every  maxim  of  law  or  in- 
terpretation that  he  could  pick  up  might  be  turned 
to  account  in  his  career ;  he  might  therefore  be 
left  to  himself,  no  discipline  was  required  in  order 
to  enforce  diligence  in  his  case;  but  the  student  in 
arts,  besides  being  younger,  did  not  usually  mean 
to  make  his  bread  by  any  branch  of  the  Trivium 
or  Ouadrivium,  and  so,  in  his  case,  the  stimulus 
which  the  student  of  law  found  in  looking  to  pro- 
fessional practice  had  to  be  supplied  by  discipline 
and  emulation.  Discipline  requires  something 
like  domestic  supervision,  and  thus  it  is  to  Paris 
that  we  owe  the  domestic  element— the  collesfe 
system  in  our  English  universities.  Colleges 
existed  for  many  centuries  at  Paris,  and  were  only 
destroyed  from  political  causes. 

The  technical  sense  of  the  word  "arts"  bears 
on  a  point  which  is  important  for  my  subject,  and 
1   must  digress  from  the  course  of  the  history  to 


Disputations.  85 

make  some  remarks  about  It.  The  branches  of 
study  comprised  in  the  faculty  of  arts  were  di- 
vided into  two  courses  :  the  Trivium,  embracing" 
grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric;  and  the  Ouadrivium, 
which  included  geometry,  arithmetic,  astronomy, 
and  music  ;  of  these,  the  Trivium  was  much  more 
followed  than  the  Ouadrivium.  The  point  to 
which  I  would  call  attention,  is  this^ — all  these 
studies  resulted  In  acquirements  which  could  be 
put  into  practice.  They  did  not  merely  furnish 
the  student  with  the  knowledge  of  physical  facts 
or  of  what  other  men  had  said  or  done,  but  they 
undertook  to  equip  him  and  train  him  to  perform 
certain  functions  or  operations  which  required 
skill.  Grammar  gave  the  faculty  of  reading  and 
writing  Latin.  Logic  and  rhetoric  furnished  the 
power  of  arranging  arguments  dexterously  in 
syllogisms,  and  of  writing  an  effective  thesis. 

"Bene  disserere  est  finis  Logices" 

was  the  received  adage. 

Of  the  studies  of  the  Ouadrivium,  the  first 
three  were  directed  to  practical  astronomy,  the 
calculating  of  ''ascensiouns"  by  the  astrolabe  and 
the  *'  chilindre,"  and,  possibly,  the  casting  of  nati- 
vities. From  these  studies  being  classed  with  a 
purely  practical  accomplishment,  music,  we  see  in 
what  light  they  were  regarded.     A  man  who  had 


S6  Historical  Notices. 

possessed  himself  of  these  arts  could  do  3.  number 
of  things  which  other  people  could  not.  The 
complete  world  of  knowledge  contained,  besides 
arts,  science  and  humanities — science,  comprising 
facts  and  theories  which  did  not  at  once  give 
a  man  any  new  department  of  action,  though 
acquaintance  with  them  might  be  of  great  service 
to  him — and  humanities,  which  comprehended  the 
works  of  the  gfreat  Latin  writers.  The  latter 
improved  a  man  by  putting  his  mind  in  com- 
munication with  the  minds  of  great  men,  and 
bringing  out  what  was  most  distinctly  human  in 
him,  but  they  did  not  put  him  in  possession  of 
a  fresh  "art,"  in  its  technical  sense. 

Early  in  the  first  chapter  I  observed  that  there 
were  two  classes  of  subjects,  one  of  which  was 
more  suitable  for  Examination  purposes  than  the 
other.  There  are  studies  which  aim  at  endowing 
the  student  with  a  power  which  he  can  be  called 
on  to  put  in  practice,  and  others  which  store  and 
cultivate  the  mind,  but  convey  no  new  power  that 
can  be  exercised — these  classes  of  subjects  we 
find,  then,  nearly  coincide  with  the  old  division  of 
the  realm  of  knowledge  into  arts  and  sciences. 
*'  Humanities,"  which  answers  to  Latin  literature, 
forms  a  middle  terhi.  The  possession  of  a  new 
language  comes  under  the  head  of  arts,  but  the 


I 


Dlspittations.  8  7 

information  and  wisdom  obtained  from  studying 
Latin  authors,  falls  under  that  of  "humanity,"  and 
all  knowledge  of  facts  or  systems  under  that  of 
"science."  Considered  with  a  view  to  Examina- 
tions, these  two  kinds  of  subjects  present  a  broad 
distinction.  71ie  one — the  arts  class — admits  of 
direct  measurement.  In  these  we  try  the  student's 
acquirements  by  seeing  how  far  he  can  do  that 
which  his  study  expressly  aims  at  enabling  him 
to  do.  He  can  be  called  upon,  if  a  "grammarian," 
to  shew  his  scholarship  by  writing  a  piece  of 
Latin ;  if  a  logician,  to  detect  the  flaw  in  some 
vicious  reasoning,  by  throwing  the  argument  into 
syllogistic  form;  if  an  astronomer,  to  find  the  hour 
of  the  day  from  certain  observations. 

But  in  the  class  of  what  were  then  called 
*'  sciences  "  we  cannot  directly  test  the  advantages 
derived  from  the  study.  These  may  be  very 
great ;  they  may  be  wisdom  or  insight  into  human 
modes  of  judging,  or  cultivated  taste,  elements 
which  are,  with  our  present  apparatus,  not  to  be 
exactly  weighed  in  an  Examination  :  we  can  only 
infer  their  presence  in  greater  or  less  degree  by 
the  amount  Vv-e  discover  of  certain  concomitants, 
which  usually  accompany  these  precious  but  im- 
ponderable elements  more  or  less,  but  in  no  fixed 
proportion  that  we  can  determine.     Eor  instance, 


88  HistoiHcal  Notices. 

a  student  of  history  may  have  got  great  benefit  by 
reading  slowly,  and  encouraging  the  suggestive 
power  of  his  own  mind,  with  the  help  of  a  good 
teacher,  who  will  keep  him  on  the  alert.  But  we 
cannot  accurately  guage  this  benefit  by  questioning 
him :  we  cannot  examine  him  in  wisdom.  We  may 
indeed  ask  for  his  "views"  and  he  will  give  them, 
but  they  will  most  often  be  a  "  parrotting  of 
other  people's  notions^."  Men  who  are  just 
come  to  the  "  thinking"  stage  of  life  fall  foul 
of  their  own  education  because  they  were  not 
made  to  think  sooner,  and  try  to  set  their  pupils 
thinking  in  their  own  sense  of  the  word ;  but  with 
young  people  there  is  a  learning  stage,  and  a 
reasoning  stage,  which  precede  that  of  generalising 
or  of  "  original  thought."  Teachers  sometimes 
form  a  man's  opinions  by  giving  him  their  own 
ready  made,  and  then  take  to  themselves  credit 
for  having  formed  his  mind.  They  have  in  fact 
done  just  the  reverse,  they  have  paralysed  his 
mind,  and  given  him  something  to  prevent  his 
feeling  the  want  of  a  mind.  Many  young  men  of 
ability  who  have  looked  to  public  life  have  suffered 
from  having  fallen  into  the  hands,  either  of  a  clique 
over-mastered  by  an  elaborately  wrought  out  theory, 
or  of  a  Mentor  ready  to  supply  on  every  point  an 

^  J.  S.  Mill,  Autobiography. 


Dispictations.  89 

original  opinion  spiced  with  that  dash  of  para- 
dox which  the  palate  of  the  clever  young  man 
requires. 

But  what  our  process  really  discovers  is,  that 
the  pupil  has  read  and  recollected  certain  histories, 
or  literary  works,  and  we  infer  that  he  has  gained 
the  desired  benefit.  Now  the  prospect  of  this 
very  Examination  may  have  prevented  his  so 
doing ;  it  may  have  led  him  to  read,  not  in  order 
to  judge,  but  solely  to  recollect.  He  may  hold  the 
knowledge  for  a  time  and  yet  rather  lose  than 
gain  in  point  of  mental  qualifications. 

History,  however,  with  a  due  proportion  of  its 
attendant  sciences,  affords  a  completion  of  the 
higher  education  admirably  suited  for  many  young 
men ;  and  so,  things  being  as  they  are,  such  a 
course  of  study  must  be  made  to  lead  to  its  share 
of  the  advantages  to  be  got  by  Examinations.  I 
believe  that  some  kind  of  Examination  (not  solely 
depending  on  papers  to  be  answered  in  a  given 
time)  may  be  applied  to  these  subjects  with  advan- 
tage even  as  regards  education ;  but  the  Examina- 
tion must  harmonize  with  a  definite  system  of 
instruction,  and  the  Examiners  must  have  studied 
their  profession  scientifically. 

Where  history  and  literature  form  an  item  in 
diversified  Examinations  of  a   lower  order,    they 


90  Historical  Notices. 

are  very  dif¥icult  to  deal  with  satisfactorily.  Exr 
aminers  are  often  driven  to  give  up  as  hopeless  the 
attempt  to  test  directly  the  real  good  got  by  the 
study^ — the  quality  of  the  kernel  itself — but  they 
try  to  judge  of  it  by  scrutinising  the  husk — they  ask 
questions  of  facts  and  dates,  they  ask  for  genealogies 
and  "short  summaries" — but  these  are  just  what 
the  man  who  profits  most  cannot  give  them,  and 
what  the  man  who  has  "got  up"  the  subject  by 
means  of  an  analysis,  has  at  his  fingers'  ends. 

Moreover  the  husk  is  perishable.  A  student 
trained  for  such  Examinations  has  called  into  being 
the  particular  kind  of  memory  he  wants,  just  as  an 
animal  develops  in  course  of  time  the  kind  of  leg 
or  wing  which  his  habits  of  life  require ;  and  by 
means  of  an  Examination  memory,  which  is  a 
variety  of  the  school-boy  memory,  he  will  rapidly 
acquire  a  certain  quantity,  hold  it  for  three  days 
and  then  forget  it  for  ever. 

It  is  this  class  of  subjects  which  constitutes 
our  great  difficulty;  if  we  do  not  examine  in  them, 
in  the  present  state  of  things  no  one  will  pursue 
them  ;  but  even  as  treated  in  qualifying  Exami- 
nations they  are  of  too  much  value  to  be  let 
drop  and  must  therefore  be  included.  This  leads 
to  their  being  cultivated  in  a  particular  way  with 
a  view  to  the  test  applied.     Any  quality  which 


DisptUations.  9 1 

is  prized  in  the  Jmsk  will  certainly  be  developed, 
but  the  kernel  may  be  overlooked. 

Just  as  popular  taste  determines  the  shape  in 
which  a  commodity  must  be  brought  to  market, 
so  Examinations  impose  a  conventional  form  in 
the  results  of  study,  and  this  is  especially  the  case 
as  regards  this  last-named  class  of  subjects.  There 
are  subjects,  like  English  literature,  of  the  highest 
value,  which,  unless  the  Examination  be  subordi- 
nate to  the  teaching,  may  lose  their  beneficial 
effects  by  being  studied  with  a  view  to  answering 
questions  after  a  given  pattern. 

The  disputation  system  had  the  like  effects,  as 
we  shall  see  on  returning  to  the  period  at  which 
we  left  our  history. 

The  arts  of  Locjic  and  Rhetoric  were  then 
cultivated  not  in  order  to  train  the  mind  but  for 
])ractical  use ;  they  were  the  weapons  wanted 
for  controversy,  and  success  in  public  disputa- 
tions led  to  advancement.  No  doubt  young  men 
got  their  wits  exercised  in  acquiring  this  logic, 
just  as  a  man  gets  a  quick  eye  and  a  nimble  hand 
in  learning  to  fence,  and  we  should  now  recom- 
mend logic  as  a  study  or  fencing  as  an  exercise 
chiefly  for  the  faculties  they  cultivate  ;  but  both  the 
one  and  the  other  were  required  for  actual  self- 
defence  in  those  days,  and  the  slighter  advantages 


92  Historical  Notices. 

of  the  training  they  suppHed  were  lost  sight 
of  as  compared  with  their  actual  utility.  The 
student  really  believed  that  he  possessed  in  logic 
an  instrument  which  would  lead  him  to  new  truths 
from  old  data,  merely  by  a  process  of  ratioci- 
nation ;  he  hoped  to  widen  the  range  of  human 
knowledge,  and  to  resolve  the  perplexities  that 
beset  existence,  by  skill  in  the  manipulation  of 
loo"ical  forms. 

It  would  appear  that  when  students  first  drew 
together  into  Universities,  the  only  teaching  they 
o^ot  was  from  a  sort  of  mutual  instruction ;  a 
student  who  had  gained  repute  among  his  fellows 
gathered  a  little  body  of  pupils  round  him,  and 
thus  supported  himself  for  a  few  years  until 
something  better  offered.  It  is  characteristic  of 
Universities  in  general  that  the  teaching,  I  mean 
teaching  as  distinguished  from  Professorial  Lec- 
turing, has  always  been  very  much  in  the  hands 
of  young  men. 

As  the  Universities  grew  in  importance  it 
became  necessary  to  insist  on  some  proof  of  the 
competency  of  the  teacher,  and  there  was  no 
better  means  of  ascertaining  this  competency 
than  by  seeing  how  the  teacher  himself  could  do 
what  he  professed  to  enable  his  pu[)ils  to  do.  In 
his  school  he  taught  them  to  dispute  syllogistically 


Disputations.  93 

one  with  another,  and  so  it  was  reasonable  that 
he  should  be  called  on  to  hold  such  disputations 
himself  in  the  presence  of  qualified  judges.  Here 
we  have  arrived  at  the  first  instance  of  any  proof 
or  evidence  of  qualification  in  the  way  of  learning 
carrying  advantages  with  it.  Students  no  doubt 
had  always  been  catechised  in  their  schools,  and 
might  have  gained  credit  and  commendation 
from  their  way  of  answering ;  but  now  we  come 
upon  a  recognised  position  and  title  obtained  by 
the  display  of  attainments. 

This  is  a  very  important  point  in  our  sub- 
ject, the  value  of  acquirements  instead  of  being 
mediate  becomes  im^nediate ;  they  are  no  longer 
esteemed  only  for  the  improvement  or  increased 
capacities  they  bring  to  the  individual ;  a  mint 
is  opened,  so  to  say,  to  which  this  knowledge 
can  be  brought  and  assayed,  and  cast  into  a 
form  which  shall  itself  carry  a  current  value.  The 
result,  we  shall  see,  was,  that  a  great  stimulus 
was  given  to  intellectual  effort  in  the  first  in- 
stance, a  stimulus  which  we  must  own  was 
beneficial,  but  that  eventually  mental  activity 
was  cramped  and  rendered  morbid  by  being 
forced  to  expend  itself  in  that  way  in  which  alone 
it  produced  a  marketable  commodity.  I  would  not 
have  it  supposed  that  persons  in  seeking  the  dis- 


94  Historical  Notices. 

tinctions  which  were  to  be  got  by  learning-  were 
mostly  actuated  by  what  we  should  call  mercenary 
views  ;  some  sought  no  doubt  for  gain,  but  many 
also  for  renown  ;  many  were  not  sure  whether  they 
really  had  grasped  what  they  had  been  stud3ang, 
and  had  got  the  power  of  bringing  it  out,  or  whether 
they  really  had  the  ability  which  partial  friends 
ascribed  to  them,  and  these  gladly  took  the  op- 
portunity of  submitting  to  a  recognised  test,  more 
especially  as  this  test  rendered  them  that  service,  of 
which  young  men  of  talent  so  often  feel  the  need^ — 
it  concentrated  their  energies  in  a  definite  channel, 
it  marked  out  the  work  the}^  had  to  do. 

But  the  appointed  criterion  in  those  days  was 
not  got  over  all  at  once,  it  was  not  contained  in 
a  single  process,  it  w^as  the  result  of  a  course  of 
disputations  and  determinations^  which  lasted  over 
several  years ;  the  result  of  this  w^as  that  the 
student  at  the  end  of  his  course  had  become, 
not  always  a  sound  theologian  or  jurist,  but  at 
any  rate  a  practised  debater  ;  he  had  acquired 
some  skill  in  logical  fence  and  in  the  resolution 
of  tangled  questions ;  he  had  acquired  readiness 
of  tongue  and  acuteness  in  drawing  distinctions 

1  A  student  at  a  point  of  his  course  analogous  to  our  B.A.  was  called 
on  to  preside  over  disputations,  to  reject  inadmissible  questions,  to  allow 
or  disallow  authorities,  to  sum  up  the  case  and  give  his  judgment.  lie 
was  then  said  qiucslionem  dderminarc. 


Disputations.  95 

and  catching  points,  but  he  had  at  the  same  time 
so  shaped  his  mind  to  a  certain  groove  that  it 
could  not  move  in  any  other.  Students  we  arc 
told  were  everlastingly  disputing,  even  at  meals, 
and  in  their  walks,  and  what  was  more,  they 
forced  all  kinds  of  studies  into  the  form  of 
disputation,  however  ill-suited  they  were  for  it ; 
even  grammar,  it  is  said,  was  treated  in  this  way. 
vSo  we  now  find  that  all  branches  of  learning, 
however  little  adapted  for  such  treatment,  must 
be  made  the  subjects  of  examination  or  they  run 
threat  risk  of  beino-  lost  sig^ht  of  altoo"ether. 

The  old  Academical  course  took  shape  little  by 
little,  and  at  last  received  sanction  from  the  ^overn- 
ment  of  the  country  in  which  the  University  lay, 
and  also  from  the  Pope.  The  old  statutes  in  the 
Universities  seem  to  have  been  tolerably  pliable. 
The  course  they  laid  down  extended  over  six  or 
seven  years.  T4ie  student  sometimes  opposed  a 
proposition,  bringing  objections  in  a  syllogistic 
form,  thus  ;  \i  A  is  ^,  then  cadit  qziestio ;  hvX  A 
is  B,  as  he  would  shew  by  argument  or  authority, 
ergo  cadit  questio,  to  which  the  respondent  would 
reply  nego  consequentiam,  and  a  fresh  issue  would 
arise.  Sometimes  the  student  would  appear  as 
a  respondent,  he  then  wrote  a  Latin  Essa}',  or 
Thesis,  as  it  was  called,  in  which  he  maintained 


96  Histojdcal  Notices. 

a  proposition  ;  and  also  towards  the  close  of  his 
student  course  he  acted  as  determinator^  the  mean- 
ing of  which  term  has  been  explained  already. 
Those  who  had  proved  their  competency  in  such 
a  course,  and  had  besides  attended  certain  Lec- 
tures, and  submitted  to  the  questionings  of  the 
other  Doctors  in  the  faculty,  were  admitted  Doctors 
or  Masters  in  this  faculty.  These  titles  Implied  a 
right  to  teach ;  It  was  In  this  that  their  essence  lay. 
They  were  not  meant  for  mere  marks  of  having 
received  a  general  liberal  education,  no  one  pro- 
bably sought  for  them  who  did  not  mean  to  teach. 
Indeed  the  graduate  was  generally  bound  by  an 
oath  to  act  as  a  Regent,  for  a  certain  period,  at 
Cambridge,  originally  for  one  year,  then  for  three, 
and  under  the  Elizabethan  Statutes  for  five  years  ; 
and  a  Regent  In  early  days  was  a  tutor,  having 
youths  perhaps  living  with  him,  but  certainly  under 
his  teaching  and  authority,  and  receiving  fees. 
Every  teacher  was  a  Regent,  whatever  his  stand- 
ing, and  the  Regentes  formed  originally,  at  least 
in  great  measure,  the  governing  body.  In  later 
days  at  Cambridge,  Masters  of  Arts  of  less  than 
five  years  standing,  and  Doctors  of  less  than  two 
were  called  Regentes,  but  only  a  few  vestiges 
remained  of  the  original  meaning  of  the  word. 
The  introduction   of   Degrees   carrying    titles 


Disputations.  9  7 

and  authority  to  teach  gave  a  new  aspect  to  tlie 
Universities,  it  raised  them  from  being  mere 
societies  for  promoting  education  and  learning 
into  institutions,  which  formed  an  important  part 
of  the  fabric  of  society,  and  which  had  a  Hfe  of 
their  own. 

The  profession  of  teaching  became  dignified 
"by  its  connection  with  the  Universities.  Doctors 
and  Professors  accjuired  much  respect  and  an 
amount  of  emolument  which,  though  probably 
moderate,  was  relative  wealth  when  compared 
with  the  pittance  of  the  schoolmaster. 

But  these  disputations  and  degrees  had  an 
attraction  far  beyond  what  could  be  accounted  for 
by  the  profit  or  the  dignity  they  conferred.  They 
aftorded  to  a  young  man  of  ability  a  means  of 
bringing  himself  into  notice ;  they  offered  him  a 
fair  field  where  he  could  try  his  strength  against 
others.  They  fulfilled  in  this  respect  the  function 
which  our  University  Honours  do  now,  and,  like 
them,  afforded  in  their  own  age  a  powerful  and 
on  the  whole  a  beneficial  impetus  to  University- 
life. 

There  was  one  ladder  open  to  the  lowly  born 
in  those  days,  it  was  the  Church.  The  young 
clerk  might  rise  to  be,  not  only  a  bishop,  l;ut 
a  judge,  an  ambassador,  or  a  higli  officer  of  state, 

L.  7 


98  Historical  Notices. 

but  if  he  were  without  interest  he  must  find  some 
means  of  singling  himself  out  from  his  fellows. 
The  public  disputations  in  the  schools  of  the 
Universities  supplied  what  he  wanted.  Hitherto, 
the  Universities  had  only  offered  learning,  now 
they  could  offer  fame.  Moreover  these  "exercises 
fell  in  with  the  strong  combative  spirit  of  the  age-^. 
They  grew  up  in  the  days  of  the  tournaments. 
They  afforded  an  attraction  to  stirring  and  active 
spirits,  who  not  only  wanted  the  fruit  of  the 
struggle,  but  who  enjoyed  the  struggle  itself. 
These  were  men  of  different  metal  from  the  quiet 
students  who  only  wished  to  learn  and  to  teach  in 
peace. 

Many  a  humble  lad  who  looked  on  at  the 
brilliant  tournament  and  siofhed  to  think  that  he 
could  neither  break  lances  nor  win  chaplets,  bright- 
ened up  at  the  thought  that  there  was  something 
yet  open  to  men  like  him,  a  place  where  strong 
will  and  active  brains  would  make  their  mark,^a 
tournament  of  wits — and  he  fancied  himself  going 
from  University  to  University,  just  as  the  knight 
went  from  lists  to  lists,  maintaining  his  thesis 
against  all  comers,  pronouncing  his  "  determina- 
tion" in    masterly  style,  and   winning,   amid   the 

^  We   find  frcfjuent  complaints  of  tlic  distraction  caused  to  students  at 
,  Cambridge  from  "jousts  and  tournaments"  held  in  the  ncit^hbourhocd. 


Disputations,  99 

ringing  applause  of  the  students,  high  encomiums 
from  the  most  learned  doctors  of  the  day. 

The  new  institution  took  firm  hold  and  grew 
rapidly.  The  scholars  formed  a  fraternity,  and  a 
student  life  sprang  up  with  marked  features  and 
usages  of  its  own.  People  always  feel  a  sort  of 
tenderness  for  the  generation  which  is  to  be,  as 
a  French  writer  says,  "  the  world  of  to-morrow," 
and  these  gatherings  of  young  men  and  their 
competitions  in  argument  were  soon  regarded 
with  interest  by  the  public  at  large. 

The  statutes,  which  required  certain  exercises 
for  degrees,  might  require  the  sanction  of  the 
Pope  or  of  some  external  authority,  but  practically 
they  emanated  from  the  academical  body,  and  so 
they  met  wants  as  they  arose,  and  expressed  the 
wishes  of  the  teachers.  Moreover  the  University 
seems  to  have  had  the  power  of  dispensing  with 
certain  of  these  requirements,  and  this  appears 
to  have  been  very  liberally  exercised. 

Thus  the  ancient  Universities  developed  their 
system  for  themselves,  and  arrived  by  degrees  at  a 
state  of  very  complex  organization.  We  can  easily 
understand  that  the  vitality  of  an  institution 
following  this  natural  law  of  development  should 
be  superior  to  that  of  a  highly  organized  crea- 
tion which,  though  fashioned,  like  a  PVankenstein, 


lOO  Historical  Notices. 

with   great  study,   is   made  and   set   going   all   at 
once. 

The  fact  that  before  the  Reformation  only  a 
small  proportion  of  the  students  proceeded  to  de- 
grees helped  to  keep  the  disputation  system  in 
repute.  Those  only  engaged  in  the  disputations 
Avho  were  competent  to  acquit  themselves  with 
credit,  and  these  were  thoroughly  in  earnest  in 
their  endeavours  to  maintain  their  point.  In 
Germany,  where  the  disputation  system  is  still 
retained^  although  supplemented  by  Examinations, 
these  contests  are  only  engaged  in  by  the  more 
distinguished  young  men.  Not  one-fifth  of  the 
students  at  a  German  University  take  a  degree 
at  all,  the  rest  are  content,  as  they  used  to  be  in 
the  Scotch  Universities,  with  obtaining  a  certificate 
of  having  attended  Lectures,  this  certificate  being- 
sufficient  to  enable  them  to  enter  on  their  pro- 
fessional course. 

It  may  be  as  well  here  to  give  some  few 
particulars  as  to  the  number  of  students,  and  of 
degrees  at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  in  earl)- 
times. 

Wonderful  stories  have  been  told  of  the  num- 
ber of  students  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  in  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries.  They  rest  mainly  on  the 
statements  of  a  monk  in  a  controversial  sermon, 


Disputations.  loi 

which  were  made  with  a  particular  object.  Recent 
historical  research  has  shewn  that  these  state- 
ments are  unfounded.  Probably  there  never  were 
nearly  so  many  students  proceeding  to  the  English 
Universities  as  there  are  now.  In  1873  near  700 
students  were  admitted  at  Cambridge  and  about 
as  many  at  Oxford.  M.  Thurot,  in  his  work, 
Dc  r  Organisation  dc  V Enscignement^  quoted  by 
Mr  Mullinger,  Hist,  of  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
p.  362,  says  that  there  never  were  1500  students 
at  Paris  in  the  best  of  times,  and  Paris  was  more 
famous  than  the  Enorlish  Universities.  In  a.  d. 
13 1 2  there  were  at  Cambridge  575  persons  liable 
to  tallage  (householders)  (see  Cooper's  Annals^ 
Vol.  I.).  In  A.  1).  1376  a  poll-tax  of  4^.  upon 
every  lay  person,  male  or  female,  above  the  age 
of  14,  was  granted  to  the  king,  and  the  number  of 
persons  charged  to  this  tax  in  the  ,town  was 
1722.  The  scholars  and  their  servants  v/ere, 
possibly,  exempted,  but  we  cannot  suppose  that 
the  scholars  outnumbered  the  adult  inhabitants  of 
the  town. 

It  must  be  recollected  that  at  this  time  the 
customary  duration  of  residence  was  much  longer 
than  it  now  is.  Students  entered  between  the 
ages  of  14  and  16,  and  remained  six  or  seven 
years  at  college,  instead  of  about  hall  tliat  time; 


102  Histoj^ical  Notices. 

thus  the  proportion  of  the  whole  body  of  students 
to  the  number  annually  arriving  was  twice  what 
it  is  at  present. 

If  we  suppose  that  the  whole  number  of  actual 
students  at  Cambridge  in  the  15th  centur)'^  was 
1500,  which  seems  to  me  reasonable,  judging  from 
such  notices  as  we  have,  and  from  the  accommoda- 
tion which  the  town  and  colleges  could  supply,  this, 
taking  six  years  as  the  time  of  residence,  would 
give  250  freshmen  in  a  year.  We  find  from  our 
records  that,  roughly  speaking,  about  50  in  a  year  at 
that  epoch  proceeded  to  degrees,  or  one-fifth  of 
the  whole  annual  number  of  freshmen.  At  present 
one-half  of  the  students  at  Cambridsfc  take  their 
degrees  in  Honours,  so  that  the  disputants  would 
answer  to  the  first  two-fifths  of  those  who  obtain 
University  distinctions.  As  long  as  the  disputa- 
tions werq  confined  to  persons  of  this  calibre,  they 
continued  to  be  realities. 

After  the  time  of  Elizabeth  it  greAv  to  be  the 
practice  that  every  student  should  endeavour  to 
take  the  B,  A.  degree;  the  mere  attendance  at  Lec- 
tures conferred  no  professional  advantage,  and, 
although  a  University  degree  conferred  but  trifling 
privileges,  yet  it  had  a  social  value,  and  every 
student  endeavoured  to  obtain  it,  Avhile  a  certain 
discredit  was  attached  to  leaving  the  University 


Disputations.  1 03 

without  a  degree.  The  consequence  was  that  these 
disputations  were  carried  on  by  those  who  knew 
little  Latin  and  less  Logic ;  they  became  a  bur- 
den instead  of  being  a  coveted  opportunity  for 
display.  Some  students  tried  to  do  the  least 
that  was  needed  in  order  to  escape  the  terrible 
"  Descendas,  Domine"  of  the  presiding  authority, 
which  answered  to  the  modern  "plucking."  The 
fact  is  that  disputations  were  never  meant  for  any 
but  willing  and  bond  fide  students,  and  when 
others  were  forced  to  engage  In  them,  they  became 
a  farce,  and  perished.  That  the  candidates  for 
degrees  were  not  numerous  Is,  indeed,  Implied  In 
the  whole  of  the  proceedings  formerly  required 
for  a  degree,  which  were  long  and  complex. 

But  these  Acts'  and  Opponencles  had  an  Indirect 
Influence,  which  extended  beyond  those  who  en- 
gaged In  them.  The  common  subjects  of  debate, 
which  would  seem  dry  enough  to  us,  were  taken 
from  what  were  in  their  own  time  the  questions  of 
the  day,  and  the  abstract  character  of  the  proceed- 
ing was  relieved  by  personal  Interest  In  the  dispu- 
tant, and  the  excitement  of  a  genuine  contest. 
Books  were  scarce  in  those  da}'s,  and  persons  were 
accustomed  to  learn  by  their  ears  as  we  are  b)-  our 
eyes ;  sermons  and  disputations  stood  them  in  the 

^  He  who  maiiitaiiieil  a  thesis  \vas  said  "to  keep  an  Act." 


104  Historical  Notices. 

place  of  current  literature,  and  the  power  of  at- 
tending to  what  is  delivered  orally  was  much  more 
commonl)^  possessed  than  it  is  now.  This  power  has 
indeed  almost  disappeared  in  our  time  among  the 
cultivated  class,  at  least  with  the  male  sex.  It 
you  want  an  audience  for  a  formal  lecture  you 
must  look  to  ladies  or  to  working  men. 

Whatever  the  causes,  we  have  evidence  that 
a  crowd  of  students  were  ready  to  listen  eagerly  to 
debates  in  Latin  on  the  points  in  dispute  between 
Nominalists  and  Realists,  and  this  shews  that  a 
considerable  amount  of  intellectual  activity  had 
been  called  forth.  Even  in  those  outside  the 
University  an  interest  was  awakened  in  philo- 
sophical discussion.  It  is  surprising  in  those  times 
to  find  how  well,  considering  that  there  were  no 
newspapers  and  no  regular  means  of  communica- 
tion, people  were  acquainted  with  what  was  going 
on  elsewhere.  University  news  spread  by  tra- 
vellers. Students  and  doctors  went  to  and  fro  on 
their  way,  making  short  stages  on  horseback.  The 
traveller  found  shelter  in  the  Hall  or  in  the 
INIonastery,  and  his  news  was  eagerly  sought.  The 
account  of  a  great  dispute  between  well-known 
doctors  would  have  all  the  interest  which  an  impor- 
tant trial  would  now  attract,  and  thus  some  tincture 
of  i^hilosophy  permeated  the  society  of  that  day. 


Disp  u  tat  ions.  i  o  5 

The  writers  even  of  tlie  li<^"hter  literdture  of 
the  middle  afjes  take  it  for  oranted  that  their 
readers  are  familiar  with  the  technical  terms  of 
philosophy,  and  have  an  interest  in  the  perplexing 
problems  with  which  it  dealt.  To  take  one  ready 
instance.  None  of  Chaucer's  tales  was  more 
likely  to  be  widely  read,  than  the  Nonnes  Prestes 
tale,  the  popular  story  of  the  Cock  and  the 
Fox.  Yet  there  Vv'e  meet  with  the  followini^ 
passage : — 

Wliether  that  Goddis  worthy  forwctyng 
Streigneth  nie  ncedely  for  to  do  a  thiiiy, 
(Needely  clepe  I  simple  neccssitc)  ; 
Or  elles  if  fre  choys  be  graunted  me 
To  do  that  same  thing,  or  to  do  it  nought, 
Though  God  forwot  it,  er  that  it  was  wrouglit ; 
Or  of  his  wityng  strcyneth  never  a  deel, 
But  by  necessit<5  condicionel. 

The  system  of  scholastic  disputations,  then, 
was  happily  suited  to  the  circumstances  of  its 
time,  and  its  immediate  effects  were  no  doubt 
beneficial.  We  might  say  much  the  same  of  the 
system  of  University  Examinations,  which  suc- 
ceeded it,  and  which,  though  it  grew  up  gradually, 
came  first  to  be  well  known  and  understood  b)- 
the  public  early  in  the  present  century.  The  niore 
remote  effects  of  both  s)-stems  are  of  a  mixed 
nature,  and  require  careful  tracing. 

The  effective  point  of  both  these  systems,  as 


io6  Historical  Notices. 

regards  their  action  in  stimulating  study,  is  the 
same. 

In  each  case  a  mart  was  opened,  at  which 
certain  kinds  of  learning  could  obtain  immediate 
consideration.  The  harvest  of  knowledge  is  long 
to  wait  for,  and  much  may  befall  the  crop  before 
it  is  reaped  and  winnowed,  and  stored  in  the  gran- 
ary :  only  the  patient  and  trustful  will  sow  for  it ; 
but  when  a  factor  comes  and  offers  to  buy  the 
crop  as  it  stands,  green  and  in  blossom,  then  the 
case  changes  its  aspect :  at  once  a  great  breadth 
of  land  is  sown,  and  care  and  capital  are  bestowed 
on  the  husbandry ;  only  there  is  this  to  be  ob- 
served— the  grower's  interest  is  thereby  turned 
to  having  a  fine  plant  at  blossoming  time,  it  is  no 
longer  his  business  to  trouble  himself  about  the 
hardening  of  the  grain. 

At  the  end  of  the  last  chapter  I  have  alluded  to 
one  of  the  indirect  actions  of  this  system,  an  action 
which  worked  unseen,  but  which  powerfully  affected 
the  turn  which  the  intellects  of  that  age  took.  I 
mean  that  it  cast  all  Icarninor  into  a  dialectic  form. 

We  have  seen  that,  as  far  as  loijic  and  rhetoric 
went,  this  system  fulfilled  one  of  the  requisites  for 
a  sound  Examination — it  measured  them  by  their 
own  natural  fruits,  A  student  applied  himself  to 
one  of  these  branches  in  order  to  learn  to  argue 


Dispittations.  loj 

and  to  put  his  points  forcibly,  and  this  form  of 
Examination  called  on  him  to  put  these  accom- 
plishments in  practice  ;  but  when  we  consider  the 
subject-matter  of  the  disputation,  which  might  be 
theology  or  philosophy  or  jurisprudence,  the  case 
was  different.  Whether  a  man  was  a  theologian, 
or  philosopher,  or  jurist,  no  one  could  positively 
say,  but  he  was  pronounced  so  in  the  schools  be- 
cause he  could  argue  about  theology  or  philosophy 
or  jurisprudence.  This  we  see  would  concentrate 
attention  on  one  aspect  of  each  of  these  subjects, 
and  that  would  not  be  the  side  on  which  new  truth 
was  likely  to  be  found.  Attention  would  be  turned 
to  those  points  which  offered  grounds  for  contro- 
versy, and  a  field  for  the  display  of  subtilty  in 
framing  artificial  distinctions,  and  of  dexterity  in 
syllogistic  fencing. 

The  schoolmen  took  up  some  of  the  intermin- 
able problems  which  beset  human  existence,  and 
though  they  might  not  even  pretend  to  have 
solved  them,  yet  one  would  insist  on  a  particular 
way  of  viewing  a  question,  and  another  would  just 
as  plausibly  insist  on  another.  Here  was  room  for 
endless  discussion,  and  men  were  led  to  expatiate 
in  this  unproductive  region,  because  it  afforded  an 
exercise  ground  which  just  suited  their  weapons 
and  their  evolutions. 


ro8  Historical  Notices. 


No  doubt  there  were  great  men  in  the  middle 
ages,  hke  Ansehn  and  others,  whose  genius  proved 
superior  to  all  adverse  influences.  The  great  men 
who  have  grown  up  under  a  system  are  often  cited 
as  proofs  of  Its  value ;  but  great  men,  of  all  others, 
are  those  who  are  least  affected  by  any  system. 
Their  native  vigour  overcomes  the  strenoth  of 
systems,  and  asserts  its  own  law  of  growth.  A 
system  must  be  tested  by  its  effect  on  the  many — 
on  those  whose  innate  force  is  but  moderate  as 
compared  with  the  external  pressure — and,  apply- 
ing this  to  the  case  before  us,  we  find  that  tlic 
shape  which  thought  and  learning  were  made  to 
take  under  the  influence  of  scholastic  disputations, 
was  such  as  to  check  free  expansion  and  variety  of 
individual  frrowth.  If  a  ""reat  man  met  with  a 
philosophical  theorem  he  would  not  be  easy  till  he 
had  sifted  out  the  truth  of  the  matter  ;  but  when  a 
thesis  came  in  the  way  of  an  ordinary  man,  the 
point  with  him  would  be,  not  "  Is  this  true  ?"  but, 
"  How  is  this  to  be  maintained  or  impugned?"  He 
would  frame  his  arguments  with  ncgo  conscqncntiam 
always  sounding  In  his  ears,  and  he  would  espe- 
cially look  to  see  how  in  the  last  resort  his  position 
could  be  reduced  to  statements  which  were  sup- 
ported by  some  received  authority.  A  proposition 
wliich  could    not  be  made  to  rest  ultimately  on 


Disputaticvis.  109 

such  support  would  not  be  suited  for  the  display 
of  his  skill.  This  consideration  narrowed  his  in- 
terest in  intellectual  questions. 

A   disputant,   too,   could    never   afford   to  ac- 
knowledge his  own   iofnorance  in   the  face   of  an 
adversary,    and   so   he   got    out  of  the    habit    of 
allowing  it  to  himself.      Now,   until  a  man  owns 
his  ignorance,  the  Avay  is  not  cleared  for  any  ad- 
vance to  knowledge,  and  the  man  is  not  in  the 
right  temper  to  set  out  in  quest  of  it.    The  learned 
in  the   middle  ages  were  in  this  condition:  they 
had  framed  theories — flimsy  structures,,  spun  out 
of  their   own    heads,    with   the   smallest    possible 
quantity  of  anything  material   to   rest   upon, — in 
order  to  fill  up  the  gaps  in  their  knowledge ;  and 
this  they  did  because  in  a  disputation  they  were 
obliged  to  maintain  that  what  they  held  was  part 
of  a  complete  system.      If  there  was  any  point  of 
their  line  undefended,  the  position  was  untenable. 
r>om  this  necessity  of  pretending  to  know  every- 
thing,  they  were  driven  to  construct  hypotheses 
resting  on  a  priori  grounds  :  a  mode  of  proceeding 
which  prevented  their  learning  anything  rightly, 
and,  what  most  of  all  disqualified  them  for  advance 
in  true  science,  they  lost  the  feeling  of  the  sacred- 
ness  of  truth  ;    they  studied  not  in  order  to  con- 
vince themselves,  but  to  silence  an  opponent. 


I  lo  Historical  Notices. 

People  in  those  times  did  not  understand  such 
a  phrase  as  "an  open  question."  When  they  came 
to  hear  a  debate,  they  expected  the  point  at  issue 
to  be  cleared  up  by  the  "  determinator " — at  any 
rate  they  wanted  one  side  or  the  other  to  zuin  in 
the  dispute — and  they  did  not  need  to  go  to  the 
bottom  of  every  question,  for  before  going  very 
far  they  were  met  by  some  authority  by  whose 
verdict  they  were  content  to  abide. 

The  disputant  brought  with  him  into  the  schools 
his  Bible,  his  Decretals,  or  other  ecclesiastical 
authorities  bearing  on  his  point,  or  else  his  Aris- 
totle, or  his  Corpus  Juris,  according  to  his  subject. 
Besides  this  he  had  a  little  store  of  dicta  of  the 
schoolmen  which  were  held  absolute  on  points  of 
logic ;  and  when  he  had  brought  any  position 
under  a  head  on  which  his  authority  spoke  clearly, 
then  it  was  valet  qiucstio  or  cadit  cjiucstio  et  argtt,- 
mentum,  as  the  case  might  be. 

Hence  the  practice  of  disputations  kept  aiL- 
thoi'ity  before  men's  minds  as  being — not  perhaps 
the  basis  of  all  truth — but  as  being  the  firmest 
ground  that  they,  practically,  could  reach  :  and 
thereby  it  encouraged  a  proneness  of  that  age 
which  was  already  too  strong. 

This  tendency  to  cling  to  authority  is  one  of 
the  characteristics  of  infancy,  and  the  intellect  of 


Disputations.  1 1 1 

Europe  was  in  its  boyhood  at  the  time  I  speak  of. 
Now  a  boy  luilL  have  a  right  and  a  wrong  on 
every  point.  If  you  tell  him  that  a  passage  may 
be  taken,  either  this  way  or  the  other  w^ay — he 
says  •'  Yes,  but  which  is  the  right  way  ?"  and  is 
ready  to  take  your  answer  as  decisive.  Such 
trust  indeed  is  necessary  for  a  child  up  to  a 
certain  point,  but  he  should  be  weaned  from  it  in 
due  time.  The  men  of  the  middle  ages  remained 
too  long  in  this  state  of  pupillage,  they  had  suc- 
ceeded to  certain  fragments  of  a  great  inherit- 
ance, which,  as  they  believed,  embraced  all  human 
wisdom  and  knowledge,  and  they  confined  them- 
selves to  treasuring  up  what  they  could  find  of 
this ;  they  never  dreamed,  with  one  or  two  excep- 
tions, of  looking  for  new  sources  of  truth.  In 
Chaucer's  time  people  were  beginning  to  be 
inclined  to  break  loose  a  little,  and  yet  he  never 
ventures  to  lay  down  a  moral  precept  or  a  ge- 
•neral  maxim  without  shelterinor  himself  under 
the  authority  of  Cicero  or  "  Boece,"  or  ''  Daun 
Caton."  Hence  the  system  of  scholastic  disputa- 
tions cramped  men's  minds  by  forcing  them  to 
cast  all  their  knowledge  into  a  particular  shape, — 
to  prepare  it,  as  it  were,  for  a  particular  market — 
and  it  kept  them  too  long  in  leading-strings, 
accepting  the  dictates  of  authority  and  disparaging 


1 1 2  Historical  Xoticcs. 

the  exercise  of  their  own  reason.  We  may  take 
a  lesson  from  this  when  we  come  to  consider 
Examinations.  There  is  further  this  point  to  be 
noted.  The  evil  would  have  been  much  less  if 
these  disputations  had  been  confined  to  youths 
and  viewed  solely  as  means  of  education.  Young 
people  must  up  to  a  certain  time  be  drilled  me- 
thodically and  must  accept  something  on  trust. 
But  these  disputations  were  not  confined  to 
youths;  learned  doctors  carried  them  on  all  through 
their  career,  they  formed  their  business  and  their 
glory. 

Now  this  is  just  as  if  our  great  scholars  or  men 
of  science  were  to  make  it  the  occupation  of  their 
lives  to  go  about  from  university  to  university  and 
compete  with  one  another  in  Examinations.  Not 
only  would  these  men  be  lost  to  literature  and 
true  science,  but  they  would  help  to  create  an 
artificial  science,  and  to  inaugurate  a  deplorable 
worship  of  puzzles  and  of  tours  dc  force.  Erom 
the  tinie  vchen  a  complete  system  of  scholastic 
exercises  was  established  throue^hout  the  Univer- 
sities  of  Christendom  down  to  the  time  when  Ex- 
aminations began  to  supersede  them,  there  was 
little  change  in  the  form  in  w^hich  acquirements 
had  to  be  presented  in  order  to  reap  their  reward. 
The  subjects  taught  varied  indeed  conslderablyj 


Disputations.  113 

and  the  spirit  of  the  teaching  much  more  as  time 
rolled  on;  but  as  these  changes  did  not,  unless 
very  remotely,  arise  from  the  form  of  the  process 
by  which  learning  and  ability  were  exhibited, 
they  only  come  into  consideration  here,  so  far 
as  regards  certain  tendencies  which  helped  to 
bring  about  the  change  from  disputations  to 
Examinations. 

The  system  of  Scholastic  disputations  may  be 
looked  on  as  a  vase  which  had  been  fashioned 
to  hold  and  to  display  human  knowledge  in  the 
1 2th  and  13th  centuries;  the  flowers  of  learn- 
ing, so  to  say,  were  for  a  long  time  grown  and 
trimmed  with  a  view  to  how  they  would  fit  the 
vase  and  how  they  would  look  in  it.  But  in 
time  there  came  new  methods  of  cultivation  and  a 
new  spirit  in  the  cultivators ;  printing  was  dis- 
covered, and  the  great  intellectual  movement  of  the 
Reformation  came.  Experiments  were  introduced 
on  the  basis  of  science,  a  new  kind  of  produce 
arose,  of  luxuriant  growth  and  divers  forms,  and  the 
old  vase  answered  its  purpose  no  more.  Its  dimen- 
sions were  confined  to  certain  limits,  and  its  shape 
was  thoufjht  to  be  so  much  of  the  essence  of  the 
thing,  that  no  one  tried  to  fit  it  to  altered  cir- 
cumstances. No  new  kind  of  disputation  was 
introduced ;  the  exercises  established  by  the 
L.  8 


114  Historical  Notices. 

Statutes  of  Elizabeth  were  of  the  same  kind  as 
those  that  had  been  in  use  before.  The  system 
was  never  patched,  but  in  England  it  wore  out, 
while  in  Germany  disputations  were  till  lately  held 
in  the  old  form.  We  see  here,  as  we  may  a  hundred 
times  every  day,  what  permanency  there  is  in 
external  forms,  how  they  lay  hold  of  men,  and 
may  survive  their  use  and  meaning. 

But  besides  the  general  effect  which  any  in- 
tellectual movement  must  have  in  causing  human 
knowledge  to  outgrow  a  receptacle  of  fixed  dimen- 
sions, there  are  one  or  two  kinds  of  action  peculiar 
to  this  case  which  it  will  be  worth  while  to  trace. 

I  have  remarked  how  in  the  days  when  the 
system  of  disputations  grew  up,  all  knowledge  was 
regarded  as  resting  on  authority,  and  how  this 
view  was  embodied  in  the  rules  of  practice  accord- 
ing to  vs^hich  these  contests  were  carried  on.  Now 
the  very  essence  of  the  spirit  of  the  Reformation 
was  one  of  revolt  against  accepted  authorities, 
and  hence  disputations  ceased  to  be  in  complete 
accord  with  the  spirit  of  the  age.  But  this  in- 
compatibility was  not  found  out  all  at  once. 
People  broke,  indeed,  with  Duns  Scotus  and 
scholastic  philosophy,  but  Aristotle  was  held  in 
as  much  veneration  as  ever,  and  no  one  dreamt  cf 
giving  up  the  syllogistic  form  of  argument. 


DispiUatio7is.  115 

The  spirit  of  the  Reformation,  no  doubt,  was 
one  of  intellectual  freedom;  people  had  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  they  ought  to  think  and  act 
for  themselves;  but  they  did  not,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  fanatics,  revolt  against  authority  as 
authority,  they  asserted  their  liberty  by  choosing 
the  authorities  they  would  adopt ;  they  put  the 
Bible  in  place  of  the  Church,  and  Aristotle  in 
place  of  the  schoolmen,  and  thus  the  disputations 
went  on  the  same  in  point  of  form  as  ever.  But 
this  could  only  be  for  a  while;  the  spirit  that  had 
been  awakened  was  sure  to  question  eventually  the 
credentials  of  the  authorities  that  were  for  the  time 
accepted,  and  a  form  of  discussion  which  necessi- 
tated a  constant  appeal  to  authority  was  not  fitted 
for  the  investigation  of  the  questions  which  were 
becfinninof  to  stir  mankind. 

The  printing  press  came  more  and  more  to  take 
the  place  of  public  lectures  and  discussions,  as  a 
vehicle  for  spreading  opinion.  The  questions  at 
issue  were  no  longer  such  as  only  interested 
scholars,  as  the  disputes  of  the  Nominalists  and 
Realists  had  been,  they  came  home  to  every  man, 
and  they  were  discussed  by  a  wider  public.  The 
Universities  ceased  to  be  the  sole  foci  of  intel- 
lectual action ;  in  England  indeed  they  were  for  a 
time  almost  deserted — tlie  bulk  of  the   students 

8—2 


I  r  6  Hidorical  Notices. 

had  looked  to  the  Church  for  their  prospects,  and 
the  path  of  clerical  advancement  was  much  nar- 
rowed ;  moreover,  the  courtiers  having  swallowed 
the  lands  of  the  monasteries  had  turned  their  eyes 
on  those  of  the  Colleges ;  these  were  however 
saved,  partly  by  the  intercession  of  Catherine 
Parr,  but  a  feeling  of  insecurity  remained.  Many 
.of  the  teachers  left,  and  parents  hesitated  to  send 
their  sons,  to  enter  on  a  career,  of  which  the 
rewards  were  so  precarious. 

The  Universities  revived  in  the  time  of  Eliza- 
beth, but  as  we  shall  see  they  performed  a  dif- 
ferent function  in  the  national  life.  Academical 
exercises  now  became  an  ancient  institution, 
retained  by  statutable  provision,  instead  of  being 
the  natural  outgrowth  of  academical  needs.  In 
spite  of  all  the  strict  injunctions  about  dispu- 
tations in  the  Elizabethan  Statutes,  the  impossi- 
bility of  dispensing  with  them  and  the  preposter- 
ous time^  bestowed  upon  them,  they  never,  after 
the  Reformation,  were  what  they  had  been  in  the 
ages  in  which  they  sprang  up — they  belonged 
henceforth  to  the  category  of  University  ceremo- 
nies and  traditions. 

There  were  two  causes  which  very  palpably 
brought  about  the  discredit  of  Disputations  in  later 

^  An  Act  was  to  go  on  "/<r  /;■/;///;  horamm  sfatium." 


Disputations.  1 1 7 

times;  one  was  that  already  mentioned,  namely 
that  they  were  engaged  in  by  incompetent  persons, 
and  the  other  was  that  the  Reformation  did  away 
with  the  general  familiarity  with  Latin.  Before  this 
period  every  educated  man  knew  something  of  the 
language  in  which  he  said  his  prayers.  Moreover 
before  the  Reformation  Latin  was  to  some  degree 
a  livinof  lanofuafre.  Barbarous  words  were  used  it 
is  true  and  Roger  Bacon  says,  that  "ego  currit"  was 
let  pass  for  grammar:  still  youths  seem  to  have 
picked  up  more  Latin  than  they  do  now,  for  when 
they  came  to  the  University  they  were  capable  of 
reading,  writing  and  speaking  that  language,  if 
not  with  correctness  yet  with  tolerable  ease, — 
so  much  so  that  in  the  Statutes  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege it  was  directed  that  the  Latin  Grammar 
should  not  be  taught  except  to  the  choristers  : 
the  College  was  not  to  do  the  work  of  a  Grammar 
School.  At  the  present  time  a  youth  from  the  fifth 
form  of  a  school  even  of  the  best  repute  might  be 
much  puzzled  by  a  plain  bit  of  Latin  if  he  had 
not  previously  got  it  up  with  a  "crib." 

Something  of  this  difference  may  be  attributed 
to  the  greater  strictness  of  ancient  education :  but 
much  must  be  set  down  to  the  fact  that  Latin  was 
in  great  part  taught  orally.  Boys  heard  it  spoken 
at  church  and  in  school,  and  on  certain  occasions 


Ti8  Histoi'ical  Notices. 

they  were  not  let  to  talk  anything  else;  besides, 
Latin  was  not  in  those  times  one  of  the  things  which 
a  boy  would  think  useless;  there  were  then  many 
foreigners  in  England,  ecclesiastics  especially,  and 
Latin  was  the  means  of  communicating  with  them. 
Latin  phrases  and  Latin  proverbs  were  frequent 
in  ordinary  conversation — witness  the  Canterbury 
Tales — and  the  lad  would  know  that  he  could  do 
nothing  without  Latin  at  the  University. 

Now  the  Reformation  destroyed  the  oral  teach- 
ing of  Latin;  it  made  it  a  dead  language  instead  of 
a  living  one,  and  in  England  it  destroyed  its  use 
as  a  universal  language  of  the  educated  world  by 
introducing  a  barbarous  pronunciation,  which  we 
are  only  just  beginning  to  throw  aside.  The 
general  familiarity  with  Latin  appears  to  have 
declined  rather  rapidly  after  the  Restoration, 
P^rench  took  its  place  as  the  language  of  the 
"  polite  world,"  and  it  was  in  the  general  laxity  of 
that  period  that  University  discipline,  and  with  it 
the  reality  of  the  Academical  exercises,  began  to 
fall  off  As  soon  as  the  Acts  and  Opponencies 
came  to  be  kept  by  youths  who  were  alike  igno- 
rant of  the  subject  on  which  they  were  talking  and 
of  the  lanQTuaofe  in  which  the  discussion  was  carried 
on,  the  display  became  so  discreditable  that  the 
authorities  were  glad  to  convert  the  proceedings, 


Disputations.  1 1 9 

as  far  as  the  pass-men  were  concerned,  into  a 
mere  form. 

Another  point  calls  for  notice.  In  the  17th 
century  physical  science  began  to  attract  attention. 
During-  the  whole  of  the  17th  century  physical 
conceptions  were  working  themselves  clear.  Phy- 
sical Philosophy  was  passing  through  the  contro- 
\ersial  stage ;  it  was  mixed  up  to  a  certain  extent 
with  theological  notions  ;  the  propounders  of  new 
\iews  came  every  now  and  then  to  some  great 
difficulty,  and  fell  back  on  theological  considera- 
tions. A  science  in  this  state  of  transition  afforded 
admirable  scope  for  disputations,  and  it  took  the 
place  of  the  Scholastic  Philosophy  to  a  very  great 
degree  at  Cambridge.  From  the  renown  of  New- 
ton and  some  of  his  contemporaries  and  successors, 
Natural  Philosophy  established  itself  there  as  the 
dominant  study  of  the  place;  and  we  find  in  the 
1 8th  century,  that  two  of  the  three  questions  which 
a  candidate  for  Honours  had  to  maintain  would 
usually  be  taken  from  the  works  of  Newton. 

As  long  as  the  Newtonian  Philosophy  was 
struggling  with  the  older  systems,  there  would 
be  life  and  reality  in  these  contests,  but  when 
it  had  finally  triumphed,  astronomy  and  mechanics 
ceased  to  furnish  open  questions  for  discussion; 
there  was  a  certainty  on  one  side  or  the  other,  and 


I20  Historical  Notices. 

a  disputation  on  such  subjects  became  only  a  sham 
fight — it  might  be  made  a  field  for  shewing- 
ingenuity  or  mathematical  knowledge,  but  there 
could  be  little  spirit  in  a  contest  when  men 
were  disputing  about  a  matter  which  both  knew 
to  have  been  long  settled.  We  shall  see  further 
on  that  as  mathematical  science  became  more 
fixed  it  proved  less  fit  to  be  employed  as  the 
sole  instrument  of  education :  we  want  to  call 
on  young  men  to  judge  of  probabilities  as  well  as 
to  understand  what  is  proved. 

Eventually,  then,  even  among  the  candidates 
for  Honours,  these  contests  ceased  to  be  real ; 
the  point  in  dispute  had  a  foregone  conclusion, 
and  soon  all  interest  in  the  matter  died  out ;  few 
cared  to  go  and  listen  to  the  Latin  discussion,  and 
the  students  no  longer  contended  for  victory.  The 
opponents  met  overnight  and  arranged  the  course 
of  argument,  and  the  authoritities  feeling  that  the 
process  was  a  mere  monument  of  the  past,  were 
unwilling,  and  wisely  so,  to  give  it  an  artificial 
value  by  making  it  of  importance  in  the  obtaining 
a  degree. 

In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  see  how  the 
Mathematical  Tripos  grew  out  of  the  exercises 
required  for  the  B.A.  degree.  These  Acts  and 
Opppnencies,  as   I  have  already  said,  became  a 


Dispiitatio7is.  1 2 1 

mere  form  with  regard  to  the  ordinary  degrees,  and 
finally  they  lost  their  importance  in  the  case  of 
degrees  in  Honours,  so  that  in  1837  the  Univer- 
sity, by  a  stretch  of  its  powers,  wisely  abolished 
them  altogether  in  the  Faculty  of  Arts. 

They  continued,  however,  to  be  carried  on  in 
the  Faculties  of  Divinity,  Law,  and  Ph)sic,  until 
they  were  legally  abolished  by  the  statutes  of  1858; 
and  a  vestige  of  them  is  still  retained  in  an  essay 
which  candidates  for  the  Doctorate  deliver  to  the 
Professor,  and  which  is  made  the  basis  of  a  vivi 
voce  Examination. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

HISTORICAL    NOTICES.        THE    MATHEMATICAL    TRIPOS. 

Ix  treating  of  the  growth  and  decHne  of  the 
S3-stem  of  scholastic  disputations,  I  have  confined 
myself  mainly  to  Its  general  effects,  purposely 
avoiding  historical  detail.  It  Is  not  my  purpose 
to  write  a  history  of  learning  or  of  university 
education,  but  simply  to  trace  out  the  influences  of 
the  different  modes  of  providing  an  immediate 
acknowledgment  for  the  results  of  instruction ; 
neither  do  I  intend  to  give  a  descriptive  catalogue 
of  the  various  sorts  of  examinations  that  have  been 
employed  at  different  times  and  places.  Unless 
a  process  of  examination  have  some  specific  opera- 
tion I  am  not  particularly  concerned  with  it.  It 
AvIU  however  be  serviceable  to  take  one  cxistine 
system  of  examination  for  close  consideration,  to 
observe  how  It  grew  up,  what  those  who  framed 
It  wanted  to  do  by  It,  what  were  Its  Immediate 
and  what  Its  remote  consequences,  what  difficul- 


The  Mathematical  Tripos.  123 

ties  arose  and  what  mischiefs  threatened,  what 
warning's  were  uttered  and  what  remedies  appHed. 
I  propose  to  take  the  Mathematical  Tripos  at 
Cambridge  as  my  typical  specimen;  I  do  this, 
partly  because  I  am  familiar  with  its  working-,  but 
also  from  one  or  two  peculiarities  which  render 
it  suitable  for  dissection  and  study. 

In  the  first  place  it  has  a  history;  it  has  been 
long  enough  in  existence  for  its  remote  and  indi- 
rect effects  to  have  become  apparent,  and  for  the 
action  of  the  remedies  which  were  applied  to  be 
observed.  It  has  grown  up  much  as  an  organism 
ma)'  be  supposed  to  be  developed  in  the  course  of 
ages ;  we  shall  find  that  one  member  dropped  off 
when  it  ceased  to  be  wanted,  and  that  another 
was  thrown  out  when  occasion  required.  These 
changes  were  in  part  due  to  the  changes  in  the 
external  conditions  which  had  to  be  fulfilled  ;  but 
besides  this  they  were  in  part  due  to  the  eftects  of 
the  public  opinion  of  a  highly  educated  body  of 
teachers,  who  were  quick  to  mark  unhealthy  ten- 
dencies. If  the  scheme  of  the  Mathematical  Tri- 
pos had  been  laid  down  once  for  all  on  paper 
like  that  of  the  Examination  for  the  Indian  Civil 
Service,  it  would  have  been  less  suital^le  for  my 
purpose;  it  would  then  have  been  not  a  growth 
but    a   construction,   and    we    could  have   learnt 


124  Historical  Notices. 


nothing  as  to  any  laws  of  development  it  might 
obey. 

Moreover  this  Examination  acquired  quite 
early  in  the  present  century  a  high  reputation  for 
the  integrity  and  ability  Avith  which  it  was  con- 
ducted. Lord  Macaulay  repeatedly  pointed  out 
the  correspondence  of  its  verdicts  with  successes 
subsequently  gained  in  life,  and  his  remarks  have 
attracted  much  attention.  In  awarding  Fellowships 
the  result  of  the  Mathematical  Tripos  has  been 
allowed  great  weight,  and  no  complaints  have 
been  heard  as  to  the  fairness  of  the  selection. 

In  consequence,  when  a  difficulty  arose  about 
the  bestowal  of  Government  patronage,  the  public 
caught  from  the  Mathematical  Tripos  the  idea  of 
introducing  competitive  Examinations.  The  word 
''competitive"  has  become  a  technical  term,  and 
must  be  rigorously  defined.  I  would  say  that  an 
Examination  is  strictly  competitive  when  one  can- 
didate is  depressed  or  excluded  by  the  superiority 
of  another.  The  Mathematical  Tripos  is  competi- 
tive in  point  of  depressing,  not  of  excluding.  The 
place  of  a  candidate  in  a  class  is  affected  by  the 
number  of  those  who  do  better,  but  his  class  is 
not  affected  by  the  number  of  competitors  ;  there 
may  be  any  number  of  Wranglers,  Senior  Optimes, 
and  Junior  Optimes,  provided  sufficient  candidates 


The  Alathcmatical  Tripos.  125 

reach  the  respective  standards,  which  are  approxi- 
mately fixed  by  tradition.  The  Examination  for  the 
Indian  Civil  Service  is  competitive  in  both  ways. 
The  names  are  placed  in  order  of  merit,  certain 
advantages  arise  from  position,  and  a  candidate 
however  well  qualified  absolutely,  is  unsuccessful 
if  fifty  candidates  obtain  a  greater  total  of 
marks.  The  Oxford  Examinations  are  not  com- 
petitive in  the  limited  sense  in  which  I  mean  to 
employ  the  term.  The  names  in  each  class  are 
placed  in  alphabetical  order.  We  hear,  indeed, 
now  and  then  that  a  person  is  the  "best  first- 
class  of  his  year,"  but  this  rests  only  on  rumour. 
As,  however,  a  closer  discrimination  is  required  in 
order  to  award  Eellowships,  the  public  Examina- 
tions at  Oxford  have  to  be  supplemented  by 
subsequent  College  Examinations,  which  are  in 
the  strictest  sense  competitive. 

It  was  owing  to  its  historical  origin  that  the 
names  in  the  Mathematical  Tripos  came  to  be 
arranged  in  order  of  merit,  for  the  "  Tripos,"  as  we 
shall  see,  arose  out  of  an  order  of  seniority  which 
had  to  be  established  amonof  the  Bachelors  of  a 
year  in  order  to  determine  precedency  and  priority 
of  claim  to  certain  University  offices.  We  shall 
find  that  the  order  of  seniority  came  more  and 
more   to   depend  on  merit,   and   thereby  greater 


126  Historical  Notices. 

credit  was  attached  to  a  position.  Such  a  hst 
was  found  of  service  in  estimating  the  merits  of 
candidates  for  Fellowships.  There  were  times  in 
which  the  elections  to  college  emoluments  were 
not  only  affected  by  crown  influence  but  were 
as  much  exposed  to  the  action  of  jobbery  and 
party  spirit  as  government  or  local  patronage  has 
been  since.  Those  who  had  it  at  heart  to  raise 
the  moral  tone  of  the  University  in  this  respect 
pointed  to  the  "  Tripos  list,"  as  it  w^as  called,  as 
furnishino-  a  criterion  of  relative  merit  unaffected 
by  personal  predilections,  and  exposed  to  the 
healthy  influence  of  publicity.  The  more  the 
"  Tripos  list"  came  to  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
the  more  carefully  it  was  framed  and  the  more  it 
was  freed  from  a  certain  element  of  favour  which 
it  had  contained.  Thus  the  growing  interest  in 
the  Tripos  betokens  a  certain  honesty  of  purpose 
existing  in  Cambridge  amid  the  general  laxity  of 
principle  of  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and,  again,  the  habit  of  respecting  the  Tripos 
fostered  this  love  of  fairness  and  right. 

The  drawing  up  of  a  satisfactory  list  in  order 
of  merit  was  much  facilitated  by  two  circumstances 
which  did  not  exist  at  Oxford. 

Firstly,  the  subjects  of  Examination  were  all 
of  one  kind;  for  though  moral  and  mental  philoso- 


The  Mathematical  Tripos.  127 

phy  entered  into  the  course  of  education,  they 
were  overpowered  in  the  Examination  by  the 
weight  attached  to  Mathematics  and  Natural 
Philosophy. 

Secondly,  these  are  subjects  which  admit  of 
very  definite  answers  to  questions  ;  not  only  must 
a  solution  be  either  right  or  wrong,  but  it  is  easy 
to  see  up  to  what  point  the  mode  of  proceeding 
is  correct,  and  thus  the  comparative  merits  of 
the  answers  can  be  estimated  :  the  more  settled 
and  scientific  Natural  Philosophy  becomes,  the 
more  this  is  the  case.  In  the  moral  sciences 
it  is  otherwise,  a  question  may  be  answered 
in  ways  altogether  different,  and  every  answer 
may  have  its  merits;  candidates  also  will  differ  as 
to  how  fully  they  suppose  the  Examiner  wants 
them  to  answer  his  questions.  This  can  hardly 
happen  in  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  : 
neither  do  they  afford  much  room  for  variety  of 
taste.  Examiners  may  differ  a  little  in  opinion 
as  to  the  style  of  the  solution  of  a  problem,  but  not 
nearly  so  much  as  they  often  do  in  regard  to  the 
merits  of  a  copy  of  Latin  verse.  Again,  it  Vv-as 
due  to  the  two  circumstances  above  stated  that  the 
system  of  ''marks"  became  applicable.  This  is  an 
important  point,  because  it  was  to  the  definite- 
ness  of  result  which  the  "mark"  system  affords. 


12  8  Historical  Notices. 

and  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  discovery  that 
selection  could  be  reduced  to  arithmetic  and  all 
the  responsibility  of  choice  put  off  upon  a  relent- 
less addition  of  figures,  that  the  Examinations  owe 
a  great  part  of  their  popularity. 

If  the  Examinations  had  embraced  widely  dif- 
ferent subjects  it  would  soon  have  been  found  that 
the  taking  of  "  totals"  gave  wrong  results,  and  if 
the  subjects  had  been  classics  or  philosophy,  the 
difficulty  of  assigning  proper  values  to  the  answers 
— though  not  insurmountable  if  approximate  results 
only  be  required,' — would  have  been  such  as  to 
prevent  the  origination  of  such  a  system,  though  it 
may  not  be  such  as  to  hinder  the  partial  adoption 
of  it,  when  it  has  once  been  originated. 

I  will  begin  my  account  of  the  Mathematical 
Tripos  by  relating  the  circumstances  from  which 
it  takes  its  name.  I  should  hardly  have  done  so 
had  I  not  found  it  stated^  that  the  name  is  taken 
from  the  three  classes  into  which  the  Honour  Lists 
at  Cambridge  are  usually  divided.  It  is  really 
derived  from  the  tripos  or  stool  on  which  stood 
the  "  Bachelor  of  the  Stool"  on  two  occasions 
when  the  names  of  the  new  bachelors  were  ar- 
ranged in  order  of  seniority.  The  days  on  which 
this  took  place  were  called  Tripos  days,  because 

^  Report  of  the  French  Commissioners,  1870. 


The  Alathematical  Tripos.  129 

this  Bachelor,  who  held  a  kind  of  mock  disputation 
and  niade  the  fun  of  the  proceeding,  was  the 
important  character  of  the  day.  The  Bachelor 
was  himself  called  '*  Tripos  "  from  occupying  the 
stool.  Ash-Wednesday  and  the  Thursday  before 
Mid-Lent  Sunday  were  respectively  called  the 
first  and  second  "  Tripos  days." 

The  following  is  taken  from  Dr  Peacock's* 
work  on  the  Statutes  of  the  University  (Ap- 
pendix A,  p.  ix.).  It  is  an  extract  from  an  account 
of  the  ceremonies  on  Ash-Wednesday,  given  by 
Matthew  Stokys,  who  was  Esquire  Bedell  in 
1557:  ''Then  shall  the  Proctours  apoynt  them 
(the  new  Bachelors)  their  Seniorities ;"  which 
done,  they  proceed  "so  orderlye  unto  the  Phi- 
losophle  Schole"  (the  Arts'  Schools)  "and  when 
every  man  is  placed,  the  Senior  Proctour  shall 
with  some  oration  shortly  move  the  Father  to 
begyn,  who  after  his  exhortation  unto  his  children 
shall  call  fourthe  his  eldest  sone "  (his  seniority 
having  just  been  determined,  so  that  he  answered 
to  our  senior  wrangler)  "and  animate  In-m  to 
dispute  with  an  old  Bachilour-,  which  shall  sit 
upon  a  stoole  before  Mr  Proctours,  unto  whome 
the  sone  shall  propounde  two  Questions." 

•  Dr  Peacock,  tutor  of  Trinity  College,  was  made  Dean  of  Ely  jn  iSjy. 
L.  Q 


130  Historical  Notices. 

Dr  Peacock's  notes  are  as  follows  : 
(i)  "  This  seniority  of  the  commencing  ba- 
chelors or  determiners,  which  was  formerly  made 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  proctors  on  Ash-Wednes- 
day, constituted  the  first  Tripos  List,  which  has 
since  become  so  celebrated  :  it  is  probable  that  the 
list  formed  by  the  posers  or  examiners,  which  was 
headed  by  the  most  distinguished  of  the  question- 
ists,  generally  guided  the  proctors  in  their  selec- 
tion, though  they  frequently  placed  at  the  head  of 
it  some  one  or  more  of  their  personal  friends  or 
favourites." 

(2)  "He  was  called  the  bachelor  of  the  stool, 
or  tripos,  which  gave  the  name  to  the  day  :  he 
was  generally  selected  for  his  skill  and  readiness 
in  disputation,  and  was  allowed,  like  the  prcevari- 
catoi'  at  the  inajora  comitia,  and  the  terrce  Jilius^ 

1  "  Tcrrae  fiUus!'''     This  was  a  title  which  invested  the  speaker  with  a 
sort  of  impersonality.     I  think  that  this  name  had  in  the  days  of  Elizabeth 
and  James  got  into  current  use  among  young  men  as  a  slang  term  emanat- 
ing from  the  Universities  ;  it  expressed  the  independence  and  camaraderie 
of  student  life,  and  possibly  it  conveyed  the  idea  of  a  certain  tinge  of 
the    "  Bohemian"  character   which  was  then  rather  the  mode.      In  Ben 
Jonson  {Alchemist,  Act  IV.  Sc.  2)  we  find  a  play  on  this-expression. 
Subtle  addresses  Kastril,  the  young  squire,  as  follows  : 
"  Come  near,  my  worshipful  boy,  my  terraefili, 
That  is  my  lad  of  land  ;  make  thy  approaches," 
Compare  also  Hamlet,  Act  II.  Sc.  2,  line  221  : 

"Ham.     My  excellent  good  friends  !  Mow  dost  thou,  Cuildcnstern? 
Ah,  Rosencrantz  !     Good  lads,  how  do  you  both  ? 
Ros.      As  the  indifferent  children  of  the  earth." 


The  Mathematical  Tripos.  131 

at  Oxford,  considerable  license  of  language,  a  pri- 
vilege which  was  not  unfrequently  abused." 

In  another  account  of  similar  proceedings  In 
1665,  by  the  Esquire  Bedell  of  that  day,  John  Buck, 
we  find  "  the  Sen'.  Proctor  calleth  up  the  Tri- 
pos and  exhorteth  him  to  be  witty  but  modest 
withall," 

It  was  not  till  the  second  Tripos-day  that  the 
Proctor  declared  all  those  whose  seniority  had 
been  reserved,  either  on  the  first  or  second  Tripos- 
days,  to  have  finally  performed  their  determina- 
tion, and  to  be  actually  "  Bachelors  in  Arts." 

Although  no  change  was  formally  sanctioned 
by  the  University,  the  mode  of  proceeding  gra- 
dually became  shortened,  and  the  disputations 
were  carried  on  with  less  spirit.  We  have  pretty 
full  accounts  of  the  state  of  things  at  the  Univer- 
sity early  in  the  i8th  century,  owing  to  the  disputes 
relative  to  the  proceedings  of  the  celebrated  Dr 
Bentley,  who  was  master  of  Trinity  College.  The 
aspect  of  affairs  at  that  time  was  dreary  enough. 

There  was  however  one  redeeming  influence, 
one  spark  of  vitality  kept  alive  in  Cambridge  ;  this 
was  the  pursuit  of  Physical  Science.  "  The  pro- 
blems of  Aristotle,"  says  Professor  Peacock,  "were 
replaced  in  the  schools  by  questions  on  moral  and 
natural  philosophy,  and  the  system  of  the  University 

9—2 


132  Historical  Notices. 

continued  to  verge  more  and  more  to  the  nearly 
exclusive  pursuit  of  mathematics  and  natural  philo- 
sophy. But  the  course  of  study  which  thus  sprang 
up  as  it  were  spontaneously  was  sanctioned  by  no 
academical  legislation;  and  during  the  first  seventy 
years  of  the  eighteenth  century  we  cannot  disco- 
ver a  single  bye- law  or  grace  in  the  statute-book 
which  either  regulates  or  authorizes  the  new  sys- 
tem which  had  thus  arisen.  The  examinations  of 
the  questionists,  which  in  ancient  times  had  been 
considered  as  subordinate  in  importance  to  the 
series  of  scholastic  exercises  which  were  required 
for  the  complete  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  ap- 
peared gradually  to  have  acquired  a  well-organized 
form,  though  still  disturbed  by  the  somewhat 
irreeular  thouo-h  statutable  intrusion  of  reg^ent 
masters  of  arts."  The  regent  masters  had  a  right 
to  question  any  one  who  was  admitted  of  their 
faculty.  This  right  they  exercised  freely,  some  in 
the  character  of  "Fathers  of  Colleges,"  and  some 
merely  for  their  own  satisfaction.  This  inter- 
ference continued  till  near  1 790,  after  which  the 
conducting  of  the  Examination  was  left  to  the 
Moderators. 

"  Towards  the  middle  of  the  century,"  conti- 
nues Dr  Peacock,  "  tlie  Tripos  lists,  which  had 
formerly  attracted  no  great  degree  of  attention,  as 


The  Mathematical  Tripos.  133 

not  being  unequivocal  testimonies  of  proficiency" 
(for  seniority  was  in  some  cases  granted  by  the 
Proctors  as  a  piece  of  patronage),  ''began  to  assume 
a  prominent  character  in  consequence  of  the  total 
abandonment  of  the  quadragesimal^  and  other  sta- 
tutable exercises,  and  the  consequent  expediency 
of  making  the  selections  from  those  candidates 
wlio  had  most  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
only  regular  and  systematic  trial  to  which  the 
questionists  were  subjected,  and  the  public  atten- 
tion which  was  thus  attracted  to  those  authorized 
certificates  of  honour,  and  the  spirit  of  emulation 
which  they  began  to  excite  amongst  the  whole 
body  of  the  students,  determined  the  character  of 
the  studies  of  the  University." 

The  earliest  Tripos  list  which  appears  in  the 
Cambridge  Calendar  is  that  of  1 748  ;  no  distinction 
is  made  between  the  Wranglers  and  Senior  Op- 
times.  They  are  included  under  the  head  of 
*'  Baccalaurei  quibus  sua  reservatur  senioritas  co- 
mitiis  prioribus"  (i.  e.  the  first  Tripos  day).  24 
names  are  given  in  1748,  and  there  are  15  Junior 
Optimes  "quibus  sua  reservatur  senioritas  comi- 
tiis  posterioribus"  (i.  e.  the  second  Tripos  day).  In 
1753  and  subsequent  years  the  Senior  Optimes 
were  divided  from  the  Wranglers. 

^  These  were  disputations  durinj;  Lent. 


134  Historical  Notices. 

Cambridge  shews  a  few  respectable  names 
during  this  period,  but  the  number  of  students 
seems  to  have  fallen  very  low.  We  find  a  writer 
speaking  of  the  University  who  talks  of  "400 
young  men  living  together,"  and  from  the  number 
of  matriculations  in  the  Registrary's  books  it 
would  appear  that  the  number  of  undergraduates 
was  not  more  than  four  or  five  hundred,  or  about 
one-fifth  of  what  it  is  now. 

We  pass  on  to  the  year  1774,  when  we  get 
a  full  account  of  the  proceedings  for  degrees 
given  us  by  Dr  J  ebb.  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  St 
Peter's  College,  who  was  the  first  person  who 
stirred  up  the  University  to  take  steps  for  re- 
pressing the  idleness  that  prevailed.  He  and 
those  who  acted  with  him  never  doubted  but  that 
by  means  of  Examinations  they  might  effect  the 
improvement  they  had  at  heart,  and  a  great  ba- 
lance of  good  I  believe  was  effected  by  the  mea- 
sures which,  though  his  proposals  were  rejected, 
resulted  from  his  agitation.  His  schemes  how- 
ever principally  affected  College  Examinations 
and  those  for  the  Ordinary  Degree,  and  I  am  now 
only  concerned  with  his  narrative  of  the  course 
of  proceeding  for  the  Mathematical  Tripos. 

Of  this  I  shall  here  give  an  abridgment. 
The  candidates  for  the  B.  A.  degree  send  in  their 


The  Mathematical  Tripos.  135 

names  to  the  two  "moderators";  these  are  two 
functionaries  who  preside  at  the  disputations. 
Each  candidate  appears  on  the  appointed  day,  in 
order  to  "keep  his  act."  He  brings  three  pro- 
positions, which  he  is  to  maintain  against  three 
students  of  his  own  standing.  These  are  his 
"opponents."  The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the 
Question  Paper : — 

Q.  S.  (QucEstiones  Sunt). 
Planeta:  piimarii  retinentur  in  orbitis  suis  vi  gravitatis  et  motu  projectili. 
Iridis  primarii\i  et  secundaria;  phenomena  solvi  possunt  ex  principiis  opticis. 
Non  licet  niagistratui  civem  morti  tradere  nisi  ob  crimen  homicidii. 

Resp.  Jan.  lolh. 

These  questions  are  approved  by  the  modera- 
tor a  fortnight  before  the  day  of  the  act. 

The  candidate  appears  before  the  moderator, 
and  reads  from  a  rostrum  a  Latin  thesis  on  one 
question.  The  first  opponent  is  then  called  by  the 
moderator.  He  mounts  a  rostrum  opposite  the 
candidate,  and  brings  eight  arguments  against  his 
position  ;  each  argument  is  supported  by  three  or 
four  syllogisms.  The  other  opponents  follow  in  turn. 

"The  exercise,"  says  Dr  J  ebb,  "after  being 
carried  on  some  time  according  to  the  strict  rules, 
insensibly  slides  into  free  debate ;  the  moderator 
restraining  the  parties  from  wandering  from  the 
subject,  and  frequently  giving  his  own  determi- 
nation." 


136  Historical  Notices. 


"  These  exercises,"  he  adds,  ^*  are  improving, 
are  generally  well  attended,  and  consequently  are 
often  performed  with  great  spirit."  It  appears 
that  some  of  the  authorities  were  even  then 
ofi'ended  at  the  badness  of  the  Latin,  and  ad- 
vised that  the  exercises  should  be  held  in  Eng- 
lish. No  such  change  was,  however,  made.  To 
resume  the  narrative : 

"The  moderator  dismisses  the  disputants  with 
a  compliment,  and  sets  marks  to  their  names,  indi- 
cating their  relative  merits.  When  all  the  candi- 
dates have  kept  their  acts,  the  moderators  form 
the  students  into  divisions  of  six,  eight,  or  ten, 
according  to  their  marks  above-mentioned.  Each 
of  these  sets  is  examined  separately,  for  an  hour  or 
an  hour  and  a  half  at  a  time,  and  the  examination 
extends  over  three  days." 

"  The  students  sat  round  a  table,  with  pens,  ink, 
and  paper,  and  the  moderator  gave  out  questions, . 
beginning  with  Euclid,  trigonometry,  and  algebra, 
and  going  on  to  the  *'  four  branches  of  philosophy, 
viz.  mechanics,  hydrostatics,  apparent  astronomy, 
and  optics,  as  explained  in  the  works  of  Maclaurin, 
Cotes,  Helsham,  Hamilton,  Rutherforth,  Keill, 
Long,  Ferguson,  and  Smith." 

Some  "  proceed  to  the  higher  parts  of  natural 
philosophy,  viz.  the  theory  of  pulses  propagated 


The  Mathetnatical  Tripos.  137 

through  elastic  media;  and  the  stupendous  fabric 
of  the  world." 

"  The  moderator,"  we  read,  *'  sometimes  asks 
a  few  questions  on  *  Locke's  Essay  on  the  Human 
Understanding,'  'Butler's  Analogy,'  or  'Clarke's 
Attributes.'  But  as  the  highest  academical  dis- 
tinctions are  invariably  given  to  the  best  profi- 
cients in  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy,  a 
very  superficial  knowledge  in  Morality  and  Meta- 
physics will  suffice." 

'■'  Problems  are  proposed  to  the  higher  divi- 
sions, with  wdiich  the  student  retires  to  a  distant 
part  of  the  Senate  House,  and  returns  with  his 
solutions  on  paper  to  the  moderator,  who  com- 
pares it  with  the  solutions  of  other  students." 

While  the  moderator  was  occupied  in  exa- 
mining one  division,  the  "  Fathers  of  Colleges," 
that  is  to  say,  the  college  officers  who  had 
charge  of  the  candidates  in  the  respective  col- 
leges, "  zealous,"  we  are  told,  "  for  the  credit  of 
their  societies,"  were  busy  with  the  rest;  each 
Father  examining,  sometimes  for  an  hour  and  a 
half  at  a  time,  those  candidates  from  other  col- 
leges, "  who  were  most  likely  to  contest  the  palm 
of  glory  with  their  sons."  All  the  members  of 
the  Faculty  of  Arts  were  considered  to  be  inter- 
ested   in  ascertaining  the  qualifications  of  those 


38  Historical  Notices. 


who  were  admitted  Into  It,  and  If  the  moderators 
wished  for  the  assistance  of  any  well-known  ma- 
thematician, he  would  feel  It  his  duty  to  render  his 
services.  The  smallness  of  the  remuneration  ori- 
ginally given  to  Examiners  at  Cambridge,  Is  per- 
haps In  part  to  be  attributed  to  the  Idea,  that 
every  Master  of  Arts  had  a  duty  to  his  Faculty. 

To  proceed  with  Dr  Jebb's  account:  The  Fa- 
ther of  one  colleee  would  take  aside  a  student  from 
another  college,  and  examine  him,  vivcl  voce,  in 
all  that  he  professed  to  have  read.  He  reported 
his  Impression  to  the  moderators,  to  all  the  other 
Fathers,  and  to  any  other  M.A.  who  might  have 
examined.  The  moderators  and  others  then  met, 
discussed  the  comparative  merits  of  the  candi- 
dates, and  eventually  picked  out  the  four  and 
twenty  who  seemed  most  deserving.  The  names 
of  these  were  printed  in  two  divisions :  the  first 
called  "  Wranglers,"  or  disputants,  par  excellence; 
the  second,  "Senior  Optlmes,"  probably  from  the 
form  of  the  Moderator's  compliment, — "  Optlme 
quidem  disputasti,  Domine." 

On  the  day  after  Ash-Wednesday  (the  first 
Tripos  day),  at  a  Congregation  of  the  University, 
these  names  were  read  over  publicly  in  order. 
When  the  name  of  the  Senior  Wrangler  was  pro- 
nounced, the  Proctor  said,  "  Nos  reservamus  ei 


The  MatJioiiatkal  Tripos.  139 

Senioritatem  suam";  and  he  went  on  saying,  "  et 
ei,"  "et  ei,"  after  each  name  as  it  was  read  by 
the  Bedell. 

On  the  second  Tripos  day  the  same  process  was 
ofone  throLis^h  with  twelve  more  names.  These  were 
the  Junior  Optimes.  The  Wranglers  and  Senior 
Optimes  were  said  to  be  "  in  the  first  Tripos." 

These  lists  were  printed  on  the  back  of  papers 
containing  copies  of  Latin  verses,  in  part  satirical 
or  facetious,  written  by  a  student  appointed  by  the 
Proctor.  These  papers  were  called  Tripos  papers, 
and  were  distributed  among  those  who  were  pre- 
sent. This  custom  is  still  continued,  and  is  the 
only  remaining  vestige  of  the  old  institution  of  the 
"  Bachelor  of  the  Stool." 

Of  all  this  course  of  proceeding  the  disputa- 
tions alone  were  required  by  statute.  There  were 
no  University  regulations  as  to  the  mode  of  ex- 
amining, or  as  to  the  degree  of  importance  to 
be  attached  to  each  of  the  very  incongruous  sorts 
of  data  from  which  the  moderators  framed  their 
list  of  Seniority.  This  list  had  in  old  days  merely 
been  known  within  the  University,  and  was  only 
regarded  as  furnishing  an  order  of  precedency ; 
but  during  the  iSth  century  it  came,  as  I  have 
said,  into  notice,  as  a  register  of  the  comparative 
merits  of  the  Bachelors  of  Arts. 


140  Historical  Notices. 

The  advantages  of  seniority  of  degree  had 
been  too  trifling  to  attract  much  interest,  but 
as  soon  as  to  take  a  good  place  in  this  register 
became  equivalent  to  securing  a  College  Fellow- 
ship, the  *'  Tripos  List"  acquired  much  import- 
ance. The  Proctor's  privilege  of  granting  Seniority 
was  dropped,  the  order  was  strictly  regulated  by 
merit,  the  ambition  of  the  abler  students  was 
awakened,  and  fresh  life  was  thrown  into  academi- 
cal work. 

I  have  already  said  that  to  induce  parents  to 
spend  their  own  money  and  their  sons'  time  in 
obtaining  a  hieh  hberal  education,  and  also  to  lead 
the  young  men  themselves  to  work  steadily  at  a 
definite  course  of  advanced  study,  some  more  co- 
gent motive  is  usually  required  than  intellectual 
advantage,  or  the  mere  emulation  of  youth.  This 
motive  the  Fellowships  at  Cambridge  supplied. 
The  stipend  of  a  Fellow  a  century  ago  was 
small,  but  he  got  a  creditable  position,  prospects 
of  preferment,  and  he  made  sure  of  a  maintenance 
in  the  Collep-e,  which  became  his  home.  This 
leisure  for  application  offered  great  attractions  to 
studious  young  men,  and  education  prospered  by 
the  presence  of  a  body  of  persons  who  were  ready 
to  teach  or  to  examine  for  little  or  no  remunera- 
tion.     The    r^ellowships   have    now,    as    will    be 


TJic  Mathcinaiical  T7'ipos.  141 

shown,  a  different  action  altogether,  but  if  we 
had  had  no  Fellowships  at  Cambridge  we  should 
have  had  no  Tripos  :  our  lists  of  Honours  would 
have  been  hardly  ampler  than  those  of  Edinburgh 
or  of  London  are  now.  The  solid  advantages  which 
\\\<A\  Academical  distinctions  carried  with  them 
drew  able  men  to  Cambridge,  and  led  them  to  work 
with  energy  and  in  a  thorough  manner;  some  few, 
no  doubt,  would  have  occupied  themselves  with 
Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  without  such 
inducement,  but  they  would  have  been  liable  to 
the  besetting:  sin  of  all  amateurs —  that  of  avoidinor 
drudgery  and  hurrying  over  the  dry  parts  of  the 
subject,  in  order  to  expatiate  in  its  pleasanter 
regions. 

The  competition  that  was  thus  called  out  set 
the  standard  of  merit  high;  it  soon  was  found  that 
those  who  had  been  at  the  top  of  the  List  of 
Honours  took  the  lead  in  life  and  in  the  professions; 
the  mysterious  appellation  of  "  Senior  Wrangler"' 
was  everywhere  regarded  as  signifying  something 
stupendous;  even  to  "have  taken  Honours"  car- 
ried with  it  considerable  credit.  When  once  a 
high  standard  had  been  attained,  and  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  the  students  were  engaged  in  reading 
for  Honours,  many  would  be  drawn  into  the  com- 
petition  from  the  desire  to  do  their  part  and  to 


142  Historical  Notices. 

take  their  place  among  their  fellows.  When  a 
body  of  men  are  pressing  earnestly  in  one  direc- 
tion, a  number  of  others  are  always  drawn  on  in 
their  train.  The  larger  the  mass,  the  greater  is 
its  attraction;  and  the  more  numerous  the  com- 
petitors, the  more  spirit  is  thrown  into  the 
contest.  A  small  class-list  conveys  the  impres- 
sion of  a  neglected  study,  and  there  is  no  crite- 
rion of  distinction  so  readily  understood  by  the 
public  as  that  of  having  beaten  a  large  number  of 
others. 

From  what  we  can  see  of  the  feeling  of  a  century 
ago.  University  distinctions,  apart  from  prospects 
of  gain,  went  for  more  in  the  world  than  they  do 
now.  In  our  time  the  attention  of  the  parents  and 
of  some  of  the  students  is  pretty  closely  directed 
to  the  question  of  profit.  This  arises  partly  from 
the  increasing  severity  of  the  struggle  to  "get 
on,"  partly  from  the  fact  that  a  much  larger  pro- 
portion of  our  students  is  now  drawn  from  a 
class  used  to  take  "  business"  views  of  matters 
than  was  formerly  the  case,  and  more  than  all, 
from  the  competition  for  scholarships,  when  at 
school,  having  brought  pecuniary  rewards  much 
under   the  notice  of  young  people. 

The  course  of  proceedings  for  the  B.  A.  degree, 
which  has  just  been  related,  had  gradually  grown 


The  Alathcmatical  Tripos.  143 

up,  and  the  regulations  rested  on  a  traditional 
but  well-understood  practice.  Dr  J  ebb's  pro- 
posed changes  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
University  to  the  state  of  the  Examinations,  and 
in  1779  a  code  of  regulations  was  drawn  up. 
The  general  purport  of  this  code  was  to  warrant 
by  legislation  what  had  hitherto  rested  on  custom, 
and  the  mode  of  procedure  continued  to  be,  in  the 
main,  very  similar  to  that  which  has  been  described; 
but  one  or  two  points  call  for  notice. 

Prior  to  1779,  it  had  been  found  that  many 
candidates  for  Honours  had  hurried  forward  to  the 
more  advanced  subjects,  without  being  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  lower  ones.  Tutors  had  been 
asked  to  warn  their  pupils  that  the  moderators 
would  not  allow  credit  for  answers  to  questions  in 
the  more  abstruse  parts  of  subjects,  to  those  who 
had  shewn  ignorance  in  the  lower  parts.  This 
warning  was  embodied  in  a  Grace  in  1779.  A 
candidate  who  is  deficient  in  his  Euclid  and  ele- 
mentary Natural  Philosophy  is  to  be  given  to 
understand — "altiora  mathesios  nequicquam  se 
assecutum." 

This  complaint  of  the  neglect  of  the  lower  sub- 
jects, as  we  shall  find,  frequently  recurs  ;  this  evil 
may  no  doubt  be  encouraged  by  certain  forms  of 
Examination,    but  it   is  not  one  with  which  the 


144  Historical  Notices, 

Examination  system  is  to  be  specially  charged. 
It  is  brought  to  light,  indeed,  by  Examinations, 
but  it  exists  in  systems  of  education  into  which 
Examinations  do  not  enter.  A  remedy  for  this 
evil  was  afterwards  found  in  a  lengthened  pre- 
liminary Examination  in  the  low^er  subjects. 

According  to  this  "  Grace"  of  1779,  the  can- 
didates are  to  be  broken  up  into  classes  for  ex- 
amination by  the  moderators,  according  to  the 
estimate  they  have  formed  of  them  from  the  "Act." 
A  day  was  to  be  given  to  questions  in  Natural 
Religion,  Moral  Philosophy,  and  Locke  On  the 
Human  Understanding.  The  words  of  the  Grace 
"  Quum  Philosophia  Moralis  in  Examinatione  pie- 
risque  nimium  neglecta  videatur,"  point  to  a  neglect 
of  this  branch.  The  candidates  were  divided  into 
six  previous  classes,  which  were  to  be  examined 
in  different  subjects,  according  to  their  reading. 
The  questions  from  books  were  given  out  viva 
voce;  the  problem  papers  were  printed,  if  not 
so  early  as  1779,  at  least  w^ithin  a  few  years 
afterwards.  The  morning  problems  were  given 
to  all  the  classes  in  the  Senate  House :  no 
writing-tables  were  provided,  but  the  candidates 
usually  knelt  down  and  wrote  in  the  window  seat; 
or  sometimes  on  the  flat  board  of  the  college  cap, 
the  tassel   havino;   been  torn  out.     The  evcninnr 


TJic  JMathcinalical  Tripos.  145 

problems  were  only  given  to  the  higher  classes 
who  went  to  the  moderators'  rooms. 

Only  two  classes  were  to  be  examined  in 
book-work  at  a  time  by  the  moderators.  The 
reason  given  for  this  is  a  curious  one:  "Quo 
cautum  sit  ne  Ouaistionista^  ab  Examinatoribus 
nimium  occupati  aliorum  Regentium  et  Non- 
Regcntiuni  Examinationi  minus  vacare  posscnt." 
This  shews  that  the  body  of  Masters  of  Arts 
still  exercised  their  privilege  of  examining — 
of  course  gratuitously,  and  were  tenacious  of  it. 
In  fact  the  whole  residing  body  of  the  Senate 
regarded  themselves  as  engaged  in  education, 
as  well  as  in  supervision. 

Kl  the  end  of  the  Examination  the  moderators 
and  Examiners  (for  the  moderators  of  the  pre- 
ceding year  were  to  act  as  Examiners)  were  to 
put  out  a  list  of  names  "in  classes  quam  minimas," 
that  is  to  say,  a  rough  classification  took  place. 
These  classes  were  called  "Brackets."  If  all 
those  whose  names  were  included  in  a  Bracket 
were  content  to  abide  by  what  they  had  done, 
the  Examination  was  at  an  end;  but  if  any  one 
wished  for  an  additional  Examination,  some  well- 
known  Examiner  was  called  in  for  this  purpose. 
After  this  the  moderators,  taking  counsel  with 
all  those  who  had  assisted  in   the    Examination, 

L.  10 


T46  Historical  Notices. 

drew  up  a  final  list  in  order  of  merit:  this  was  the 
"  finalis  Honorum  designatio." 

We  observe  in  this  Grace  of  1779  that,  though 
the  Examination  was  more  than  heretofore  viewed 
as  a  means  of  ascertaining  relative  superiority,  yet 
that  its  educational  bearing  was  kept  distinctly 
in  view.  An  effort  was  made,  we  see,  to  give 
effect  to  the  floral  Philosophy,  and  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  Przelectors,  who  were  then  persons 
engaged  in  college  tuition,  brought  the  working 
of  the  Examination  under  the  notice  of  the  teach- 
ing body.  We  shall  see,  as  we  proceed,  that  with- 
out the  supervision  of  those  who  are  interested  in 
education,  an  Examination  may  become  absolutely 
injurious  to  the  cultivation  of  the  young. 

After  this,  the  length  of  the  Examination  was 
increased  from  time  to  time,  but  the  general  plan 
of  it  remained  the  same  until  1828,  when  the  num- 
ber of  the  previous  classes  was  reduced  to  four, 
and  the  Examiners  were  permitted  to  give  the 
same  Examination  to  all  if  they  thought  fit.  They 
availed  themselves  of  this  permission  to  some 
extent.  The  Moral  Philosophy  seems  by  this  time 
again  to  have  become  inoperative.  In  order  to 
.enforce  attention  to  the  lower  subjects  it  was  di- 
rected that  on  the  first  day  of  the  Examination 
,the  Differential  Calculus  should  not  be  used.     But 


T/ie  Mai/iematical  Tripos.  147 

the  change  which  had  the  most  practical  effect  was, 
that  the  whole  of  the  questions — those  from  books 
and  not  only  the  problems  as  hitherto — were  or- 
dered to  be  printed,  and  they  were  published  in 
the  Cambridge  Calendar.  This  brought  the  course 
for  Mathematical  Honours  clearly  before  the  pub- 
lic; and  it  very  soon  shewed  its  effect  in  an  in- 
crease of  the  number  of  candidates.  It  spread  the 
influence  of  the  Examination  over  the  whole  coun- 
try, and  the  direct  and  immediate  effect  of  this  was 
salutary,  as  that  of  Examinations  generally  has 
been.  The  re7note  effects  require  a  fuller  analysis 
than  can  be  given  in  this  narrative,  and  I  shall 
speak  of  them  hereafter. 

The  course  which  the  successive  changes  took 
shews  that  the  Examination,  which  at  first  had 
i^een  only  an  incident  in  an  academical  education, 
came  gradually  to  be  so  important,  that  the  younger 
part  of  the  body  might  well  fancy  that  the  final 
cause  of  University  teaching  was  to  train  students 
to  take  hicrh  desfrees.  We  shall  see  as  we  ofo  on 
that  those  who  clung  to  the  old-fashioned  educa- 
tional view,  viz.  that  the  object  of  University 
teaching  was  to  do  the  most  mental  good  to  the  stu- 
dents, and  that  the  distinctions  were  subsidiary  to 
this  end,  resisted  this  tendency,  and,  as  the  legis- 
lative  power  was  largely  in  the  hands  of  these 

10 — 2 


'14S  Historical  Notices. 

persons,  their  opposition  moderated  many  of  the 
evil  influences  which  they  saw  growing  up.  But 
we  observe  that  everything  that  impeded  accu- 
rate discrimination  between  the  candidates  was 
gradually  swept  away,  and  so  far  as  we  have  gone 
it  cannot  be  said  that  education  suffered  much 
from  the  loss,  although  the  old  provisions  had 
been  introduced   on   educational  grounds. 

We  shall  find  that  when  an  Examination  is 
left  in  the  hands  of  the  Examiners,  and  is  not 
controlled  by  those  who  are  interested  in  edu- 
cation, discrimination  is  more  thought  of  than 
anything  else  :  for  Examiners  consider  that  classifi- 
cation is  their  raison  d'etre.  This  is  a  positive 
law  which  we  may  see  exemplified  in  the  history 
of  all  Examinations,  and  the  operation  of  which 
I  shall  often  have  to  note.  The  subject  of  Moral 
Philosophy  destroyed  the  homogeneity  of  the 
Tripos,  and  was  thereby  an  obstacle  to  exact 
classification.  This  was  looked  on  coldly  by  the 
Examiners  in  consequence,  and  it  eventually  dis- 
appeared. The  interference  of  the  Fathers  of 
Colleges  was  another  element  of  confusion.  It 
hindered  the  Examiners  in  arriving  at  an  exact 
result,  and  it  was  got  rid  of  accordingly. 

Again,  a  difficulty  arose  from  the  practice  of 
giving  different  questions  to  the  different  classes. 


The  Alathcniatlcal  Tripos,  149 

The  marks  allotted  to  the  paper  given  to  the 
first  class  mioht  be  twice  as  many  as  those  of 
that  given  to  the  third;  but  if  the  paper  was  more 
than  twice  as  difficult,  it  would  answer  the  stu- 
dent's purpose  better  to  get  placed  in  the  third 
of  the  previous  classes  than  in  the  first.  It 
seems  that  this  practice  did  actually  lead  to  some 
"jockey-ship"  of  the  kind,  and  it  was  in  conse- 
quence entirely  abandoned  in  1839.  It  was  cer- 
tainly a  clumsy  contrivance,  but  it  aimed  at  pro- 
viding that  each  candidate  should  be  thoroughly 
examined  in  what  he  had  read.  If  all  were  ijiven 
the  same  papers  there  would  either  be  so  little 
within  the  reach  of  the  weaker  men,  that  they 
would  learn  on  speculation  some  scraps  of  subjects 
beyond  their  legitimate  range,  or  the  questions 
from  the  lower  subjects  would  have  to  be  so 
unduly  numerous  as  to  load  the  papers  and  em- 
barrass those  who  had  read  the  full  course.  This 
evil  became  sensible  soon  after  the  change  was 
made,  and  w^as  remedied  in  1848  by  the  pre- 
liminary Examination  which  I  have  already 
mentioned  and  of  which  an  account  will  be  given 
further  on. 

The  code  of  regulations  sanctioned  in  1S37 
completed  the  series  of  changes  w^iich  converted 
the  course  of  academical  exercises  for  a  degree  in 


150  Historical  Notices. 

Honours  at  Cambridge  Into  a  competitive  Exa- 
mination in  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy. 
By  a  stretch  of  the  powers  of  the  University,  the 
series  of  Disputations  in  the  Arts'  Faculty,  which 
had  for  years  become  so  mere  a  form  as  not  even 
to  fiu'nish  satisfactory  grounds  for  dividing  the 
candidates  into  previous  classes  for  examination, 
was  now  utterly  swept  away,  and  the  whole 
system  laid  down  by  the  Statutes  of  Elizabeth, 
was  replaced  by  a  continuous  Examination,  lasting 
for  six  days,  in  which  all  candidates  had  the  same 
questions  proposed  on  paper. 

We  may  observe  here  that  the  mechanism 
of  Examination  became  gradually  simpler.  This 
was  necessitated  by  the  increasing  number  of 
the  candidates  as  well  as  by  the  more  refined 
accuracy  of  discrimination  which  was  now  ex- 
pected. We  shall  find  a  similar  tendency  to 
simplification  in  the  history  of  other  systems  of 
Examination.  Those  who  frame  the  schemes  in 
the  first  instance  usually  have  their  attention 
drawn  to  the  cases  of  various  classes  of  possible 
candidates ;  and  the  educational  bearing* of  this  or 
that  regulation  is  sure  to  be  commented  on  by 
tutors  or  schoolmasters.  Hence  adaptations  and 
corrections  are  introduced,  and  the  machine  is 
made  somewhat  complex,   in  order  that   it  may 


The  Mathematical  Tripos.  151 

perform  many  functions  at  once.  But  when  the 
scheme  has  been  launched  it  falls  into  the  hands 
of  the  Examiners,  and  the  changes  they  make 
or  get  made  are  apt  to  run  in  one  direction. 
These  modifications  are  almost  sure  to  remove 
one  after  another  the  checks  or  the  options  which 
had  been  introduced,  as  well  as  to  economise  the 
Examiner's  pains.  The  ideal  of  all  Examinations, 
in  the  eyes  of  some  of  those  who  are  taken  up 
with  conducting  them,  would  seem  to  be,  a  ma- 
chine capable  of  discriminating  ''merit"  with  the 
utmost  nicety  at  the  least  cost  of  labour  and  time. 

Regarded  from  this  point  of  view,  the  Tripos 
in  1839  had  nearly  arrived  at  perfection;  the 
questions  were  most  carefully  chosen,  the  sim- 
plicity of  form  it  had  attained  made  it  readily 
understood  by  tutors  through  the  country,  and 
the  number  of  candidates  for  Mathematical  Ho- 
nours steadily  increased. 

Cambridge  was  proud  of  the  institution  she 
had  perfected,  and  she  might  well  be  so.  She 
had  invented  a  method  of  estimating  merit,  which 
was  extremely  definite,  and  which  as  long  as  it 
was  confined  to  the  IVIathematical  Sciences  was 
singularly  correct.  The  credit  of  the  Tripos  rests 
on  the  order  it  lays  down  being  confirmed  by  the 
judgment  of  the  principal  Tutors.  A  Tutor  who 
has  marked  the  way  in  which  diftercnt  men  take 


152  Historical  Notices. 

in  matter  and  make  it  their  own,  must  be  able  to 
rate  their  powers  more  nicely  than  an  Examiner 
can,  who  only  sees  what  they  produce  on  paper 
in  a  limited  time ;  and  if  the  teachers  go  steadily 
against  the  Examiners,  and  say  "  you  have  put 
the  wrong  man  first,"  the  public — at  least  the 
University  public — will  be  inclined  to  side  with 
their  opinion.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  verdict 
of  the  Examiners  usually  accorded  very  remark- 
ably with  the  views  of  the  Tutors. 

The  Mathematical  Tripos  had  certainly  ac- 
complished one  immense  good  ;  it  had,  in  its  own 
sphere,  exterminated  "jobbery"  and  the  influence 
of  joersonal  interest.  This  may  not  seem  much  to 
us,  living  in  a  time  when  so  much  publicity  is 
given  to  all  transactions  that  people  must  "  as- 
sume a  virtue  if  they  have  it  not ;"  but  in  the 
days  when  the  Tripos  grew  into  existence  things 
went  almost  everywhere  by  favour,  and  it  took 
a  long  time  to  persuade  those  of  the  former 
generation  that  it  was  not  at  Cambridge  as  else- 
where. 

The  system  of  numerical  marks  helped  to 
foster  the  integrity  of  the  Examinations.  The 
numbers  furnished  by  the  different  Examiners 
in  subjects  of  the  same  kind  were  added  up,  and 
the  resultinof  fiorurcs  determined  the  order.  It 
was  not  like  voting  that  one  or  more  individuals 


The  Alathanatical  Tripos.  153 


should  get  a  prize,  or  be  placed  in  a  first  class. 
We  may  conceive  that  in  this  case,  particularly  if 
discussions  were  allowed,  a  person  mi^ht  be  un- 
consciously swayed  by  some  unacknowledged  in- 
fluences, or  he  might  bend  to  a  stronger  and  more 
self-asserting  colleague,  but  no  one  could  falsify 
figures  as  he  was  marking  separate  questions, 
without   being  really  a  dishonest  man. 

We  may  now  think,  since  a  Fellow  of  a 
Colleo-e  became  in  most  cases  one  of  the  eovern- 
ing  body  of  a  place  of  education,  that  certain  per- 
sonal considerations,  such  as  temper  and  good 
breeding,  might  have  been  properly  taken  into 
account ;  but  such  was  the  horror  of  falling  into 
a  system  of  patronage — of  becoming,  as  it  used 
to  be  said,  "just  like  Deans  and  Chapters,"  bodies 
which  were  altogether  different  40  years  ago  from 
what  they  now  are — that  Colleges  adhered  to  the 
verdict  of  the  Tripos  to  an  extent  which  may 
sometimes  have  been  a  little  prudish^.  A  belief 
in  the  sanctity  of  Examinations  thus  became  an 
article  of  every  Cambridge  man's  creed,  and  a 
charge  of  favour  or  of  neglect  would  have  been 
most  damaging  to  an  Examiner. 

We  have   now    reached    a   point   where    dis- 

^  Excepting  where  there  was  a  distinct  Examination  for  the  Fellow- 
ships, as.  was  the  case  at  Trinity  College. 


154  Historical  Notices. 

putation  had  sunk  altogether  out  of  sight,  and 
people  were  stretching  hopefully  away  to  that 
region  of  Examinations  in  which  we  are  now 
dwelling :  and  here  I  must  observe  one  or  two 
instances  of  contrast  between  the  old  ''Cambridge 
Tripos"  and  the  new  "  Mathematical  Tripos." 
The  difference  of  names  half  tells  the  story  of  the 
chano-e.  In  the  last  half  of  the  eis^hteenth  cen- 
tury,  when  a  young  man  of  ability  came  to  the 
University  and  was  desirous  of  gaining  distinction, 
it  was  not  his  primary  object  to  become  a  mathe- 
matician, or  that  of  his  Tutor  to  make  him  one. 
He  wanted  to  be  the  first  man  in  the  "Cambridge 
Tripos."  This  meant,  the  list  of  the  ablest  of 
her  sons  which  the  University  put  out  when  they 
had  completed  her  course  of  study.  It  happened 
that  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  were 
most  prominent  in  this  course  because  they  were 
thought  most  valuable  as  instruments  of  a  liberal 
education ;  but  some  knowledge  of  Latin  and 
Logic  was  taken  for  granted,  and  Moral  Philo- 
sophy was  upheld  by  the  authorities,  as  we  have 
seen,  after  it  had  lost  favour  in  the  opinion  of  the 
younger  members  of  the  Senate. 

The  authorities  did  not  think  of  producing 
professional  mathematicians,  what  they  wanted  to 
do  was  to  turn  out  able  men,  and  this  they  did. 


TJlc  Alathcmatical   Tripos.  155 

Tlie  difficulties  that  beset  the  reading  man  at  that 
time  hindered  his  progress,  no    doubt,  but  were 
excellent  discipline  for  the  struggle  of  life.     Stu- 
dents   in    those    days   were    not   allowed   private 
tutors    during    their    last    year,    and   rarely    had 
recourse  to  them  at  other  times  :  neither  had  they 
text-books  adapted  to  examination  with  the  sub- 
ject cut  up  into  detached  propositions.     They  did 
not  find  the  knowledge  they  wanted,  in  sections 
numbered  off  for  reference  and  put  into  the  form 
in  which  it  was  to  be  written  out;    they  had  to 
cast  it  into  this  shape  themselves,  with  the  help 
of  directions  given  in  the  College  Lectures.    They 
read  works  written  by   men  of  science  for  men 
of  science,  such  as  those  of  Newton  and  others 
enumerated    by    Dr    J  ebb    in    a    passage    quoted 
above.      These  books  contained  some  echoes  of 
past  controversies  on  the  principles  of  mechanics, 
which  still  made  their  rumblings  heard  in  notes 
and  in  prefaces  ;  and  sometimes  an  ingenious  dis- 
putant in  his  Act  would  wake  into  momentary  life 
some   old   crotchet,   which  had  gone    to   take   its 
place  in  the  "  History  of  Human  Error."     These 
discussions  relieved  science  of  its  purely  abstract 
character;  they  brought  up  recollections  of  great 
intellects  in  conflict,  and  they  served  to  keep  alive 
the  human  sympathies  of  the  students  of  physics. 


156  Historical  Notices. 

When  the  youngster  now  sldms  over  the  chapter 
on  elementary  principles  in  his  manual,  and  gives 
it  scanty  attention  in  his  eagerness  to  get  for- 
ward, he  little  thinks  how  hardly  those  same 
primary  truths  were  come  by. 

The  Cambridge  manuals  of  five-and-thirty 
years  ago  were  taken  from  the  manuscripts  used 
in  the  College  Lectures,  and  in  consequence  they 
were  little  more  than  a  Syllabus  containing  the 
demonstrations  of  theorems  ;  the  explanatory  mat- 
ter was  to  be  given  by  the  Lecturer  off-hand.  It 
was  owing  to  this  that  such  books  were  rather  as- 
semblages of  propositions  than  complete  treatises, 
and  this  original  accident  of  form  has  injuriously 
affected  Cambridge  manuals  until  very  lately. 

It  was  no  doubt  good  for  the  abler  young 
men  to  make  their  way  through  books  which 
were  not  written  for  Students  or  for  Examinations. 
They  read  not  as  schoolboys  learning  lessons, 
but  as  those  would  who  wanted  to  know  the  secrets 
of  physics.  They  were  brought  into  contact  with 
great  minds,  and  this  had  an  elevating  effect ;  it 
made  men  of  them.  But  on  the  other  hand,  they 
ofot  over  much  less  c^round  than  those  of  like 
ability  do  now ;  they  knew  fewer  branches  of 
science,  though  they  got  a  greater  amount  of 
educational  advantage  from  what  they  did  know. 


TJic  MatJicniatical  Xripos,  157 

The  feebler  ones  however  came  off  badly ;  the 
exertion  of  hewing-  from  the  quarry  which 
braced  the  sinews  of  the  vigorous,  paralysed  or 
exhausted  them.  The  stronger  men  very  soon 
made  their  way  to  the  front.  Any  little  advan- 
tage in  point  of  previous  preparation  was  soon 
lost  by  the  weaker  man.  The  stift'ness  of  the 
course  brought  out  power  and  steadfastness  of 
resolve.  The  weaker  ones  suffered  in  two  ways  ; 
they  were  disheartened  by  the  demand  on  them 
for  energy  and  resolute  work  to  which  they  w^ere 
not  equal,  and  also  by  seeing  how  easily  the  men 
of  greater  vigour  passed  them  by.  We  see  here, 
as  we  so  often  do,  how  unfavourable  the  condition 
of  things  was  to  the  feebler  ones  in  old  times. 
The  theory  of  that  day,  not  only  in  University 
matters  but  in  school  life  and  domestic  life  as 
well,  was  that  people  were  to  be  made  hardy  and 
vigorous.  The  "survival  of  the  fittest"  produced 
perhaps  a  generation  of  more  sustained  energy 
than  our  own  ;  but  we  cannot  reconcile  ourselves 
to  the  extinction  of  the  less  fit  which  this  state  of 
things  involved.  We  now  hold  it  our  duty  to  do 
the  best  we  can  for  all,  and  to  give  to  all  our 
material,  good  and  bad  alike,  the  highest  polish 
it  will  take.  This  duty  complicates  the  problems 
we  have  before  us. 


158  Historical  Notices. 

At  the  time  which  I  have  reached  in  my 
narrative  (1839),  Cambridge  had  as  yet  no  doubt 
about  her  system,  she  was  exulting  in  the  distinc- 
tions of  men  who  had  been  trained  in  a  course 
more  conducive  to  thoroughness  and  self-reHance 
than  that  which  was  then  actually  in  operation,  and 
the  Tripos  took  credit  for  Lord  Lyndhurst,  Mr 
Justice  Maule,  Sir  Frederick  Pollock,  Baron 
Alderson,  and  others  who  had  been  reared  in  the 
rough  school  I  have  been  speaking  of 

We  hear  people  who  have  not  looked  much 
into  the  matter  speak  as  if  Senior  Wranglers  had 
degenerated.  This  I  believe,  if  w^e  reckon  by 
ability  or  even  vigour  of  mind,  will  be  found  to  be 
untrue.  But  it  is  a  fact  that  the  type  of  man  is 
changed.  The  highest  mathematical  education  of 
Cambridge  is  no  longer  simply  a  liberal  education, 
training  the  powers  of  the  man  for  active  life,  but 
it  is  for  the  highest  men  also  a  technical  education 
in  mathematical  physics.  A  high  wrangler  for- 
merly was  a  man  of  highly  developed  general 
mental  power.  Now  he  is  also  an  accomplished 
mathematician,  qualified  for  immediately  under- 
taking a  scientific  post,  and  such  posts  exist  in 
sufficient  abundance  to  provide  for  the  highest 
men  at  an  early  age.  \ 

For  many  years  no  Senior  Wrangler  went  to 


The  Mathejnatical  Tripos.  159 

the  Bar ;  on  the  other  hand  there  was  not  a  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics  or  Natural  Philosophy  in 
Great  Britain  that  had  not  been  a  hiorh  wranorler. 
A  Professorship  offered  a  young  man  an  imme- 
diate competence  for  work  which  was  congenial 
to  him,  and  this  he  took  in  preference  to  enter- 
ing on  an  apprenticeship  to  a  new  study.  It  is 
true,  however,  that  at  the  present  moment,  Profes- 
sorships seem  to  be  rather  less  coveted.  These 
posts  bring  in  stipends,  so  moderate  as  hardly  to 
answer  the  expectations  which  young  men  of 
ability  now  entertain,  and  they  in  consequence  are 
turning  their  eyes  to  the  more  brilliant  but  uncer- 
tain prospects  of  active  life.  It  may  seem  humi- 
liating, but  it  will  be  found  to  be  true,  that  the 
results  of  the  higher  education  are  on  the  whole 
influenced  by  supply  and  demand,  very  much 
as  those  of  manufacturing  industry  are.  We 
may  find  a  few  cases  of  men  who  have  a  strong 
bent  for  some  kind  of  learning  or  some  profes- 
sion, and  who  will  make  sacrifices  to  pursue  it, 
just  as  we  find  now  and  then  a  porcelain  manu- 
facturer who  spends  a  fortune  in  improving  art ; 
but  as  we  should  not  reckon  on  finding  such  en- 
thusiasts,  in  our  transactions  in  trade,  so  in  all 
.schemes  of  education  which  are  left,  as  those  of 
the  English  Universities  are,  to  the  sole  operation 


i6o  Historical  Notices. 

of  supply  and  demand,  we  must  suppose  that  the 
great  mass  of  people  will  be  actuated  by  consi- 
dering the  return,  in  the  way  of  profit,  or  position, 
or  means  of  enjoyment,  which  their  children  will 
obtain  for  the  pains  and  money  spent  on  their 
education. 

We  must  not  claim  for  the  Cambridge  Tripos 
too  large  a  share  in  the  credit  of  producing  the 
great  men  I  have  named.  The  education  they 
got  was  indeed  admirably  calculated  to  give  them 
firmness  of  mental  grasp  ;  but  what  Cambridge 
especially  did  for  them  was,  that  it  brought  them 
early  to  the  front.  Great  men  will  usually  get  some- 
how or  other  cultivation  for  themselves,  but  they 
may  be  buried  so  far  down  that  they  only  struggle 
above  ground  too  late  to  come  to  perfection.  The 
main  credit  due  to  Cambridge  in  these  cases  was 
that  of  right  discrimination.  The  man  who  had 
been  at  the  head  of  the  Tripos  came  to  be  the 
head  of  his  profession.  It  must,  however,  be 
recollected,  that  in  the  beginning  of  the  century 
the  competitors  at  the  Bar  were  fewer  in  pro- 
portion to  the  business  than  they  now  are,  and 
they  were  more  restricted  to  particular  classes. 

A  young  man  proceeding  to  the  Bar  with  a 
good  degree  carried  with  him  in  those  days  a  strong 
prestige  ;  and  this,  besides  its  external  advantages, 


The  MatJicniatical  fyipos.  i6i 

liclpcd  him  on.  He  felt  that  much  was  expected 
of  him,  and  he  looked  to  doing  over  again  in  the 
world  what  he  had  done  in  the  University.  It  may 
have  made  him  conceited,  but  it  was  no  petty 
vanity ;  it  was  a  conceit  which  made  him  think 
that  he  might  try  for  any  prize  or  position  in  life, 
and  I  wish  that  our  young  men  had  more  of  it. 
His  early  success  had  pitched  his  life  in  a  high 
key,  and  given  him  confidence  in  his  strength  and 
eventual  success,  so  that  he  would  be  encouraged 
to  pass  by  small  temporary  advantages  which 
might  otherwise  have  lured  him  from  playing  the 
grand  game. 

While  the  Tripos  was  becoming  more  and 
more  an  exclusively  Mathematical  Examination, 
and  at  the  same  time  was  being  regarded  very 
generally  as  an  avenue  to  Fellowships,  those  who 
followed  other  branches  of  learning  began  to  com- 
plain. There  had  always  been  at  Cambridge  a 
small  but  distinguished  body  of  classical  scholars. 
The  Chancellor's  Medals,  the  University  Scholar- 
ships, and  the  Fellowship  Examinations  at  Trinity 
College,  had  supplied  prizes  for  the  ablest  men, 
but  there  was  little  or  no  encouragement  for 
any  short  of  the  ablest.  I  have  before  observed 
that  all  through  the  time  that  we  have  been  con- 
sidering there  may  be  marked  a  growing  desire  to 


1 62  The  Malkematiiul  Tripos. 

do  the  best  not  only  for  the  tirst-rate  men,  but  fo; 
those  of  different  degrees  of  abihty  as  well  ;  and 
as  it  is  only  in  a  general  class  list  that  second 
rate  men  can  hope  to  see  their  names  in  a  place 
of  credit,  a  movement  was  set  on  foot  to  establish 
what  from  the  analogy  of  the  old  name  was  called 
a  Classical  Tripos.  Still  the  Mathematical  Tripos 
represented  the  old  Cambridge  course,  it  alone 
gave  the  degree,  and  it  was  made  necessary  that 
in  order  to  compete  for  Classical  Honours  a 
person  should  have  attained  at  least  the  position 
of  a  Junior  Optime.  This  provision  added  a  new 
function  to  the  Mathematical  Tripos,  it  was  no 
longer  purely  an  Examination  for  those  who 
were  competing  for  distinction  in  Mathematics ; 
for  a  certain  number  of  the  candidates  it  became 
a  pass  Examination. 

The  jMathematical  Tripos  for  some  years 
after  1838,  appeared  an  unqualified  success;  it 
called  out  a  great  amount  of  energy  both  in 
teaching  and  in  learning,  and  in  the  eyes  of  the 
younger  people  it  came  to  be  regarded  not  as  the 
means  of  education,  but  as  being  itself  the  end 
to  which  all  education  was  directed  ;  thus  it  be- 
came an  idol  just  as  idol- worship  has  come  about 
in  otlicr  cases.  People  found  at  last  that  from 
having  been  a  servant  of  University  education, 


The  Mathematical  Tripos.  i6 


o 


this  Examination  had  become  the  lord  and  arljiter 
of  all :  instead  of  the  Examination  giving  a  sanc- 
tion to  a  mode  of  teaching,  the  Examination 
called  into  existence  that  kind  of  teaching  which 
was  most  suited  to  ensure  success  for  the  com- 
petitor. It  was  quite  agreeable  to  the  ordinary 
economical  laws  that  this  should  be  so  :  but  it 
was  not  then  understood  that  these  laws  extended 
to  educational  matters. 

When  a  certain  kind  of  Examination  Is  set 
up,  when  by  success  in  this,  advantages  are  to 
be  obtained  which  are  desired  by  many,  and 
especially  when  the  whole  range  of  the  Exami- 
nation is  before  the  public,  so  that  the  conditions 
for  craininof  the  cfreatest  success  with  the  least 
labour  can  be  made  out,  then  it  is  just  as 
certain  that  a  kind  of  teaching  adapted  to  the 
purpose  will  appear  and  supersede  other  teach- 
ing, as  it  is  that  if  a  new  fabric  come  into  fashion, 
a  loom  specially  adapted  ,  for  producing  it  will 
be  brought  into  general  use.  The  public  teach- 
ing of  the  University  consisted  of  Professorial 
lectures  which  had  fallen  into  disuse,  and  the 
lectures  given  in  the  Colleges.  There  had  aJways 
been  a  few  private  tutors.  These  now  became 
so  much  resorted  to  that  the  teaching  seemed 
to  have  passed  out  of  the  hands  of  the  University. 

I  I—  2 


164  The  Mathematical  Tripos. 

But  the  University  could  still  have  exerted  her 
supremacy  if  she  only  began  at  the  right  end. 
If  the  fashion  was  calling  into  existence  a  flims}' 
fabric  and  bad  work,  it  only  lay  with  her  to  alter 
the  fashion.  It  was  her  Examinations  that  created 
the  demand  for  the  article,  and  if  they  brought 
a  bad  article  into  the  market,  it  was  sufficient 
ground  for  altering  them.  The  Examinations 
had,  as  I  have  said,  by  degrees  been  made  into 
an  excellent  instrument  for  selection,  but  they 
w^ere  also  used  as  the  main  guide  for  education, 
and  this  purpose  had  of  late  been  lost  sight  of  in 
framing  them;  in  part  however  they  brought  into 
light  shortcomings  in  the  public  teaching. 

Pupils  found  that  to  do  well  in  an  Examination 
they  must  not  only  have  what  they  ought  to 
know  set  before  them,  which  the  College  Lec- 
turers had  done,  but  that  they  must  also  have 
some  one  to  see  that  they  knew  this,  and  could 
produce  it.  They  had  to  be  shewn  how  to  put 
their  knowledge  on  paper  :  for  this  they  needed 
Examination  Papers  in  portions  of  their  work, 
which  should  be  looked  over  with  them ;  such 
assistance  was  only  supplied  by  the  Colleges  in 
the  last  Term,  when  the  Praelectors  according  to 
old  custom  examined  the  Questionists  to  ascertain 
their  fitness  for  entering  the  schools. 


llic  Mathematical  Tripos,  165 

Private  tutors  afforded  the  assistance  rc- 
(julrcd,  they  made  It  their  business  to  see  that  the 
pupil  learnt,  and  the  system  of  private  tuition  so 
spread  as  to  threaten,  as  some  of  those  who  raised 
the  alarm  said,  to  overwhelm  all  other  teaching. 
This  new  system  had  the  advantage  of  supplying 
ihe  pupil  with  a  continuous  guide  who  knew  his 
mental  constitution,  and  could  advise  him  as  to 
his  course  of  reading  accordingly,  while  in  college 
he  passed  from  one  lecturer  to  another,  and  his 
communication  with  his  College  Tutor,  whose 
function  it  is  to  supply  this  element  of  continuity, 
was  not  always  close  or  constant  enough  to 
answer  the  purpose. 

It  happened  at  the  time  I  am  speaking  of, 
that  Cambridge  was  very  fortunate  in  the  person 
who  obtained  the  greatest  eminence  as  a  private 
tutor,  Mr  William  Hopkins  (for  some  time  Presi- 
dent of  the  Geological  Society).  He  occupied  in 
fact  at  Cambridge  the  position  which  a  Professor 
Extraordinary  holds  In  Germany;  he  taught  his 
pupils  in  well  assorted  classes  of  from  four  to 
eight,  and  this  is  probably  the  most  perfect  mode 
of  teaching  the  higher  mathematics ;  thus  the 
ablest  men  of  the  different  Colleges  were  brought 
together;  and,  being  a  very  high-minded  man, 
thoroughly  earnest  in  his  devotion  both  to  science 


1 66  TJie  MatlLcmatical  Tripos. 

and  education,  he  gave  his  pupils  an  elevated 
view  of  their  work.  He  banished  from  his 
Lecture-room  all  reference  to  the  Examination ; 
the  keenest  pursuer  of  the  main  chance  never 
ventured  to  ask  him,  if  this  or  that  "would  pay 
in  the  Senate  House."  He  taught  his  class 
Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  in  the 
best  form.  They  must,  he  Avould  say,  learn  in 
the  faith  that  what  was  most  for  their  profit 
would  brinsf  them  their  due  credit. 

There  can  be  no  healthy  teaching  which  docs 
not  rest  for  its  working  on  tliis  sort  of  confidence 
between  the  teacher  and  pupil.  It  may  require 
the  sanction  of  some  advantage  in  prospect  to 
induce  the  pupil  to  embark  on  the  higher  course 
of  study,  but  when  he  is  embarked,  the  Examina- 
tion and  the  rewards  should  pass  out  of  his  sight; 
he  should  not  be  constandy  stimulated  by  being 
.shown  the  profit  Avhich  this  or  that  bit  of  know- 
ledge may  bring.  The  kindly  feeling  between 
pupil  and  teacher  should  make  the  cordial  ap- 
proval of  the  latter  sufficient  encouragement  for 
what  the  pupil  wants  on  the  way,  and  he  must 
trust  the  teacher  to  take  him  along  the  right 
road.  The  teacher  moreover,  to  do  his  work  satis- 
factorily, must  feel  confident  that  the  questioning 
in  the  Examination  will  justify  the  course  he  has 


The  Mathematical  Tripos.  167 

taken  In  adopting  a  liberal  and  intelligent  kind 
of  instruction  :  he  must  trust  the  Examination 
and   the  pupil  must  trust  him. 

Here  we  come  to  the  truth  on  which  we  must 
rest.  If  we  can  frame  an  Examination  in  which 
that  which  will  enable  the  candidate  to  do  the 
best  is  that  which  it  is  best  for  him  to  learn,  and 
to  learn  in  the  best  way,  then  we  shall  have 
constructed. a  perfect  educational  instrument.  In 
the  case  of  mathematics  we  may,  I  think,  hope 
to  arrive  at  what  we  want,  approximately,  in  this 
essential  point,  provided  that  we  keep  our  main 
object  closely  in  view,  and  do  not  expect  our 
system  to  do  too  man)^  things  at  once. 

All  tutors  were  not  like  Mr  Hopkins,  and  an 
idea  got  abroad  that  private  tutors  directed  their 
teaching  more  immediately  to  success  in  the  Se- 
nate House  than  was  the  case  with  the  Collep'c 
Lectures,  or  than  w^as  always  desirable  or  even 
politic  in  the  end.  The  Lecturers  indeed  al- 
ways maintained  high  ground  in  this  respect.  Mr 
Blakesley,  Tutor  of  Trinity  College,  now  Dean 
of  Lincoln,  who  tried  to  bring  the  private 
tutors  into  connection  with  the  college  s)stem. 
repudiates  all  notion  of  working  up  to  the  Ex- 
amination.    Ilesays^:  "College  Lectures  shoidd 

»   Whin  doa.lhc  Evil  lie?    A  pampLlot  by  Rev.  J.  W.  Blakesley,  1845. 


i68  The  Mathematical  Tripos. 

be  most  religiously  kept  free  from  any  other 
object  than  that  of  putting  the  subject  lectured  on 
in  the  clearest  light  and  on  the  most  philosophical 
basis." 

The  objection  to  private  tuition  which  was 
most  strongly  taken  up  by  the  public  was  ground- 
ed on  the  expense  of  the  system  and  of  the 
advantage  thus  given  to  the  richer  men.  The 
expense  has  been  much  reduced,  and  practically, 
if  an  able  man  could  not  afford  to  pay  for 
this  assistance  himself  the  College  or  College 
Tutor  Avould  supply  the  means.  The  richer 
men  have  no  doubt  advantages  in  being  able  to 
purchase  any  books  they  want  and  in  other 
ways,  but  these  are  counterbalanced  by  their 
having  less  strong  inducements  to  industry.  An 
objection  that  lies  deeper,  is  the  tendency  to 
ovcrhelping  inherent  in  a  system  of  private  tuition. 
Young  men,  as  Dr  Whewell  says^,  ran  to  their 
tutor  for  the  solution  of  a  difficulty  before  they 
could  clearly  say  where  their  difficulty  was,  and 
there  were  tutors  whose  special  art  lay  in  storing 
a  pupil's  memory  with  little  artifices  and  con- 
venient formulae,  to  the  starving  of  his  mind.  I 
conceive  the  temptation  both  to  overhelp  and  to 

^  Wliewcll,    Of  a  Liberal  Ediicatioji,    1S4S.     This  book  gives  a  full 
liistory  of  the  Tripui,  and  1  have  been  much  indebted  to  it. 


% 

The  ^lal/iajialicjil  Tripos.  169 

the  overcharging  with  fonnukc  may  be  obviated 
to  a  very  great  extent  by  a  thoroughly  scientific 
system  of  Examination:  this  view  is  taken  by  Dr 
Merivale,  the  present  Dean  of  Ely,  in  his  evi- 
dence given  to  the  University  Commission  in 
1 85 2.  Indeed,  taking  the  Examination  as  it  is. 
it  is  found  that  students  of  fair  ability  do  better  in 
the  Senate  House  when  they  have  been  made 
to  depend  a  good  deal  on  themselves  and  are  not 
overloaded  with  formulae  and  "  short  methods." 
It  is  a  great  advantage  in  the  Tripos  that  the 
course  for  it  extends  over  so  long  a  time  that 
the  fruit  not  only  of  instruction  but  of  good  habits 
of  mind  inculcated  has  time  to  come  to  light. 
Thus  a  tutor  may  hope  to  see  the  good  of  having 
formed  his  pupil's  mind,  and  not  only  that  of 
having  fdled  it  to  meet  the  occasion.  This  is 
the  great  point  of  difference  between  preparing  a 
pupil  for  a  University  degree,  for  which  he  has 
three  years'  time  or  more,  and  ''coaching  him 
up"  for  some  competitive  Examination  which  is 
to  take  place  in  a  few  months.  In  the  latter 
case  a  little  training  of  memory  of  course  takes 
place,  but  there  is  no  time  to  form  good  habits 
or  remove  bad  ones. 

Another  objection  rested  on  the  effects  of  the 
system,  not  on  the  pupils  but  on  the  tutors  them-. 


1 70  The  Mathematical  Tripos. 

selves.  Every  young  man  who  had  taken  a  high 
degree  soon  got  as  many  pupils  as  he  cared  to 
have.  He  was  naturally  tempted  to  increase  his 
income  in  this  way,  instead  of  employing  the 
"trusted  leisure"  which  his  Fellowship  afforded, 
for  research  or  for  high  cultivation.  These  young 
men  had  no  experience  and  little  authority,  they 
were  therefore  likely  to  direct  their  teaching  to  the 
points  which  the  pupils  most  valued.  The  pupils 
who  resorted  to  them  would  usually  be  of  the 
v.'eaker  sort,  for  the  College  Tutor  would  take 
care  that  the  abler  men  had  the  help  of  one  who 
had  made  teaching  a  profession,  and  these  feebler 
men  would  force  their  tutor  to  give  them  more 
help  than  was  good  for  them.  Weak  men  have 
a  craving  for  help,  and  they  set  much  value  on 
short  methods  and  compendious  formulae,  and 
advice  immediately  relative  to  the  Examination, 
so  that  a  tutor  anxious  for  pupils  would  be  under 
temptation  to  teach  in  a  narrow  spirit.  These 
evils  were  forcibly  exposed  by  Dr  Whewell  in  the 
work  already  quoted,  and  also  by  Mr  Blakeslc}-. 
Ur  Peacock,  in  the  work  of  which  I  have  made 
free  use  above,  proposed  the  reintroduction  of  the 
old  restriction  on  private  tuition,  but  no  proposal 
to  this  effect  came  before  the  Senate.  Such  a 
step  would,  I  think,  have  been  nugatory.     It  would 


llic  Alathcniatical  Tripos.  i  7 1 

have  been  like  prohibiting"  the  use  of  a  certain 
kind  of  advantageous  mechanism  in  a  manu- 
facture. 

Private  tuition  has  now  become  a  regular  pro- 
fession; it  has  its  recognised  place  in  the  teaching 
of  the  University,  and  some  of  the  ablest  mathe- 
maticians in  Cambridge  are  engaged  in  preparing 
pupils  for  the  Tripos.  Many  of  these  are  also 
College  Lecturers.  Private  tuition  was  indeed 
called  into  existence  not  by  what  was  bad  in  the 
I'^xamination  system,  but  by  what  was  its  most 
undeniable  good,  by  the  necessity  it  imposed  on 
a  man  of  brino-inor  his  knowledofe  into  a  clear  and 
definite  form.  Examiners  have  no  mercy  on  the 
man  who  shews  that  he  only  half  understands  a 
matter.  Now  the  knowledge  carried  away  from  a 
lecture  which  is  not  strictly  catechetical,  that  is  to 
say,  which  does  not  in  a  degree  partake  of  the 
character  of  private  tuition,  is  almost  sure  to  be 
misty,  or  at  least  to  have  bits  of  cloud  hanging 
about  it.  The  special  art  of  a  good  teacher  lies 
in  being  able  to  bring  to  the  too  easily  contented 
pupil  the  consciousness  that  he  has  only  half  ap- 
prehended some  points  and  wholly  misconceived 
others.  This  costs  labour  and  requires  skill,  and 
the  pupil  must  be  in  close  communication  witli 
the  teacher  and  in  earnest  to  learn.    Examinations 


1/2  The  Mathematical  Tripos. 

supplied  the  motive,  and  the  requisite  sort  of 
teaching  came  into  existence  when  wanted.  It 
might  have  been  suppHed  to  some  extent  by  the 
Colleges,  and  it  now  is  so  to  a  considerable  de- 
gree, but  part  of  the  good  of  the  system  lay  in 
its  being  one  of  perfectly  free  trade,  and  the  com- 
bination of  free  trade  with  University  superin- 
tendence required  more  organic  changes  than 
could  have  been  carried  out  at  the  time  I  am 
speaking  of  (1841 — 45). 

A  movement  had  taken  place  in  mathema- 
tical science  between  1800  and  1820,  to  which 
I  must  now  refer,  inasmuch  as  its  effects  in- 
fluenced the  form  of  the  Examinations.  Thc^ 
works  of  several  French  mathematicians,  Lacroix, 
Lagrange  and  others,  had  been  translated  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  came  into  general  use.  They  pre- 
sented a  method  of  mathematical  investigation, 
which  was  technically  called  the  Analytical  me- 
thod, as  opposed  to  that  used  by  Newton  and  his 
followers,  which  is  called  Synthetical.  In  the 
former  the  use  of  algebraical  symbols  greatly  pre- 
dominated, while  in  the  latter  geometrical  con- 
structions were  chiefly  employed.  Hence  we  find 
the  terms  An^-lytical  and  Synthetical  often  used 
as  though  they  were  synonymous  with  Algebraical 
and  Geometrical  respectively,  which  is  by  no  means 


I 


The  Mathematical  Tripos.  1 73 

the  case  ^  The  Analytical  methods  were  more 
powerful,  more  easy  to  handle,  and  led  more 
readily  to  results.  By  means  of  them  new  fields 
of  mathematical  investigation  were  laid  open,  and 
some  of  these  Avere  especially  fertile  in  attractive 
problems.  This  highly  recommended  these  me- 
thods to  the  Examiner,  because  an  Examiner  finds 
it  much  easier  to  rate  a  man's  knowledge  by  making 
him  apply  it  than  by  seeing  him  produce  what  he 
has  learnt.  He  will  therefore  always  have  a  lean- 
ing to  that  side  of  a  subject  which  yields  appli- 
cations and  examples — that  side,  in  fact,  of  the 
science  which  results  in  an  "  Art,"  using  the  word 
in  its  old  sense.  The  teachers  also  rejoiced  in  a 
method  which  furnished  an  abundance  of  useful 
and  interesting  examples,  and  which,  indeed, 
created  one  subject,  Analytical  Geometry,  which 
offers  countless  problems.  It  is  one  of  the  results 
of  publishing  the  Examination  Papers,  that  all 
practicable  problems  get  used  up,  and  Examiners 
are  driven  to  invent  puzzles, — for  it  is  a  point  of 
honour  not  to  set  what  has  been  given  before. 

1  I  cannot  here  give  a  criticism  of  these  methods,  cr  an  adequate  com- 
parison of  their  values  in  Education.  I  must  refer  to  the  evidc-nce  of 
I'rof.  Stokes,  Mr.  Leslie  Ellis,  and  others,  in  the  Report  of  the  Commis- 
sion in  1852,  and  to  the  Report  of  the  French  Commissioners  in  1870. 
'I'he  latter  agree  with  Prof.  Stokes,  that  for  the  full  comprehension  of  .n 
subject,  the  pupil  should  for  a  while  carry  on  both  processes  side  bv  side. 


1/4  ^'^^  Alathcmatlcal  Tripos. 

Hence  an  Examiner  seizes  with  avidity  on  a 
newly-discovered  vein  of  science  which  is  said  to 
be  rich  in  problems^.  Teachers  and  Examiners 
both,  therefore,  hailed  the  new  methods,  and  we 
may  add  pupils  as  well,  for  much  hard  hcadwork 
was  hereby  saved,  and  many  subjects  were  opened 
to  the  feebler  men  which  they  could  not  have 
dealt  with  by  the  old  methods.  Those  who  were 
interested  in  scientific  investio"ation  w^ould  of 
course  use  the  new  processes  exclusively ;  they 
had  been  developed  in  France  in  order  to  meet 
the  needs  of  original  investigators,  and  without 
their  help  the  progress  of  science  must  have  been 
much  restricted. 

Hence  pupils,  teachers.  Examiners  and  savants 
concurred   in    advocating   the    use    of   Analytical 

1  I  have  said  in  the  last  chapter  that  the  old  disputations  forced  all  Icnow- 
Icdge  into  a  dialectical  form  ;  so  in  a  slighter  degi^ee  our  Examinations 
have  induced  those  occupied  with  them,  to  view  scientific  subjects  as 
matter  for  problems,  and  to  invest  the  sciences,  as  it  were,  with  difficulties 
Ijcyond  those  which  they  naturally  offer,  that  they  may  serve  as  exercises  for 
determining  the  relative  power  and  ingenuity  of  the  competitors.  The 
longer  a  kind  of  Examination  has  been  in  existence,  the  more  apparent  this 
tendency  becomes.  Our  Examination  Papers  are  growing  more  abstrusely 
scientific  than  science  herself.  The  French  Commissioners,  M.  Demogeot 
and  M.  Montucci,  complain,  and  with  much  truth,  that  our  papers  will  train 
men  ii  opcrcr  phUot  quW  rt-flkhir.  They  however  had  had  no  experience 
of  the  exigencies  of  a  long-established  series  of  examinations  mainly  di- 
rected to  discrimination.  In  Classics,  Theology,  English  Literature,  and 
other  subjects,  the  same  tendency  may  be  observed,  and  that  not  at  Cam- 
bridge only,  lixamination  papers  are  everywhere  becoming  more  and  more 
a  repertory  of  the  diflicullics  which  the  subjects  can  be  made  to  present. 


The  ^[athoiiatical  T-ripos. 


i  ."1 


mclhocls,  and  the  old  Geometrical  methods  went 
out  of  use  altogether. 

Ikit  in  1845  Dr  Whewell,  though  he  had  him- 
self taken  part  in  early  life  in  introducing-  the  new 
methods,    advocated    the   restoration   of   the  old 
methods  for  elementary  teaching  on  purely  educa- 
cational  grounds.     It  was  argued  that  by  follow- 
ing the  old  method  the  student  saw  at  every  step 
vvhat  he  was  doing ;  that  in  the  new  one,  after  he 
had  written  down  certain  equations,  whether  the 
sul)jeet  were  mechanics  or  geometry,  he  lost  sight 
of   the    distinctive  character  of   the    matter   and 
arrived  at  the  result  by  performing  certain  alge- 
braical  processes.     This   it  was  said,    and  trul\-, 
detracted  much  from  the  educational  value  of  the 
study.     The  pupil  was  like  a  spectator  who  sees 
linen  rags  put  into  a  receptacle  at  one  end  of  a 
paper-mill,  is  told  to  put  one  piece  after  another  of 
machinerv  in  motion,   and  is   then   taken   to  see 
these  same  rags  passing  out  from  under  a  roller  at 
die  other  end  of  the  mill  in  the  form  of  a  smooth 
breadth  of  paper.      It  was  admitted  that  many  of 
the  weaker  men, — and  the  compulsion  laid  on  the 
classical  scholars  had  loaded  the  Tripos  with  such 
men — performed  operations  in  some  branches  of 
mathematics  by  following  a  sort  of  recipe,  and  that 
they  hurried  over  their  lower  subjects  in  hopes  to 


I  "J 6  The  Alathcmatical  Tj'ipos. 


be   able   to  answer   a  few  questions  in   subjects 
which  they  had  better  never  have  touched. 

Tliis  controversy,  raised  by  Dr  Whewell,  hap- 
pily forced  the  University  to  consider  the  question. 
"  What  is  it  that  we  are  teaching  the  undergradu- 
ates mathematics  and  physics  for  ?"  It  appears 
that  the  case  is  different  for  the  higher  and  for 
the  lower  men.  The  good  of  our  education,  and 
indeed  of  all  education,  is  twofold,  it  is  made  up 
of  the  value  of  the  acquirements  and  of  the  in- 
tellectual benefit  obtained  in  the  process  of  ac- 
quiring :  with  the  abler  men  the  first,  with  the 
inferior  ones  the  second  preponderates.  A  high 
wrangler  has  acquired  a  mastery  over  the  lan- 
guage and  the  conceptions  of  science,  he  is  in  a 
position  to  apply  himself  to  the  higher  teaching  or 
to  embark  in  research.  Thus  the  attainments  he 
has  acquired  have  a  great  positive  value,  while  in 
point  of  mental  training  the  University  has  done 
no  more  for  him  than  for  those  whose  acquire- 
ments are  much  smaller,  indeed  possibly  less ; 
because  men  of  great  ability  usually  train  their 
own  minds  for  themselves  almost  unconsciously. 
A  considerable  body  of  those  who  take  mathe- 
matical honours  obtain  knowledge,  inferior  indeed 
to  that  of  the  gifted  few,  but  still  well  worth  the 
leaving ;    it    may   be  hard    to    say  whether   these 


TJie  Mathematical  Tripos.  177 


profit  most  l)y  the  knowledge  they  attain  or  Ijy 
tlie  improvement  of  their  faculties.  But  there 
will  remain  a  large  number,  who  though  they 
may  keep  in  mind  such  elementary  laws  of  Me- 
chanics, or  Optics,  or  Astronomy  as  are  exempli- 
hed  by  what  constantly  passes  before  their  eyes, 
and  may  find  greater  interest  in  nature  in  conse- 
quence, must  yet  set  down  nineteen-twentieths  of 
the  profit  derived  from  their  course  of  study  to 
its  having  hardened  their  brains,  and  given  them 
a  more  perfect  use  of  their  owni  powders.  The 
minds  of  the  ablest  men  are  w^ell  disciplined  before 
coming  to  the  University.  They  have  got  their 
attention,  their  memory,  and  other  faculties  w^ell 
imder  command.  The  w^eaker  men  need  the  train- 
ing of  a  system,  and  the  good  they  get  from  it  is 
frequently  very  marked.  The  improvement  in  the 
man  is  often  strikincf,  wdiile  that  in  his  knowledge 
is  only  moderate.  Thus  the  benefit  wdiich  accrues 
to  the  candidate  for  Honours  is  made  up  of  two 
elements,  training  and  acquirement.  With  the 
Senior  Wrangler  nine-tenths  may  be  set  down  to 
the  acquirements  obtained,  with  a  low  Junior 
Optime  nine-tenths  to  the  training. 

This  suo;Qrests  that  different  modes  of  treat- 
ment  may  be  desirable  for  those  who  are  to  draw 
such  different  kinds  of  benefit  from  their  studies. 

L.  12 


1 73  The  Mathematical  Tripos. 

Dr  Whewell  accordingly  proposed  to  divide  the 
Examination  into  two  parts,  one  framed  particu- 
larly Avith  a  view  to  mental  training,  and  the  other 
to  test  high  acquirements.  Many  of  his  recom- 
mendations were  carried  out  in  a  new  code  of  reei-i- 
lations  for  the  Mathematical  Tripos,  which  came 
into  operation  in  1848.  It  did  not  however  intro- 
duce any  vizui  voce  Examination  though  on  this 
Dr  Whewell  had  laid  great  stress.  The  educa- 
tional interest  had  rallied  in  great  force  under  Dr 
Whewell,  but  still  with  the  majority  of  the  Senate 
the  paramount  object  was  to  secure  perfect  fair- 
ness of  selection;  and  as  in  a  viva  voce  Examination 
different  candidates  would  be  asked  different 
questions,  this,  it  was  said,  would  derogate  from 
that  "  equality  for  all"  which  was  the  pride  of 
Cambridge.  Moreover,  there  were  two  objections 
to  a  viva  voce  Examination  for  the  Tripos  which 
were  weighty  because  they  were  practical.  To 
examine  orally  in  mathematics  with  good  effect, 
demands  a  special  insight  into  the  working  of 
the  learner's  mind,  and  a  happy  knack  of  hitting 
on  his  strong  and  weak  points.  Many  excellent 
mathematicians,  whose  services  mioht  in  other 
ways  be  most  valuable,  would  never  obtain  these 
faculties:  just  as  there  are  many  excellent  lawyers 
who  have  no  orift  for  cross-examinincr  witnesses. 


TJie  JMathcmatical  Tripos.  i  79 

If,  then,  the  oral  part  of  the  Examination  were  to 
be  thoroughly  well  performed — and  if  it  were  not, 
it  would  become  only  an  appendage  to  the  paper 
work — this  rare  faculty  would  be  regarded  as  es- 
sential, and  the  choice  of  Examiners  would  be 
restricted  to  the  happy  few  who  possessed  it. 
Hereby,  it  was  said,  the  advantage  arising  from 
the  frequent  introduction  of  fresh  minds  would  be 
lost :  the  questions  would  run  in  grooves,  and 
the  candidates  would  find  it  more  remunerative  to 
study  the  papers  of  past  years  than  to  read  in 
a  liberal  w^ay. 

The  other  objection  applies  to  all  viva  voce 
Examinations,  and  will  limit  their  use  to  cases 
in  which  the  number  of  candidates  is  moderate. 
It  turns  on  the  costliness  of  the  process  in  time 
and  in  labour.  Two  Examiners  at  least  must 
be  present  to  conduct  the  Examination  ;  the  same 
Examiners  should  question  all  the  candidates,  and 
the  examination  of  each  candidate  should  last 
twenty  minutes.  Hence  the  time  requisite  for 
examining  a  number  of  candidates  is  very  con- 
siderable, and  cannot  always  be  afforded. 

On  the  other  hand,  all  those  who  have  treated 
of  Examinations  have  perceived  that  a  viva  voce 
Examination  supplied  a  good  corrective  for  the 
narrowing  effect  of  a  paper  Examination,  and  had 


I  So  The  Mathematical  Tripos. 

other  advantages.  Questions  put  orally  are  not 
recorded  in  the  published  papers,  so  that  a  part  of 
the  Examination  remains  in  the  dark,  and  can- 
didates will  not  venture  to  disregard  parts  of  their 
subjects  because  they  do  not  fmd  them  introduced 
In  the  papers.  If  the  tutor  finds  his  pupils  inclined 
to  pass  these  matters  by,  he  can  urge  that  they 
may  have  to  answer  questions  on  them  viva 
voce. 

Moreover,  a  paper  only  shews  the  knowledge 
of  the  candidate,  but  not  all  his  ignorance,  except 
by  implication.  If  a  question  raise  points  about 
which  he  is  not  clear,  he  passes  on  to  something 
else,  but  in  viva  voce  he  has  no  escape  ;  he  must 
lay  bare  the  state  of  his  notions  on  the  subjects  on 
which  he  is  questioned.  If  he  shroud  himself,  as 
on  paper  he  might  do,  under  the  words  of  a 
manual,  the  Examiner  may  ask  him  what  they 
mean,  or  put  some  simple  application  which  will 
test  his  grasp  of  the  matter.  The  nerve,  the  pre- 
sence of  mind,  and  readiness  of  expression  which 
are  encouraged  by  a  viva  voce  Examination,  are 
also  worth  considering;  they  are  mental  habits,  or 
the  results  of  mental  habits,  and  are  evidences  of 
character  as  well  as  valuable  for  themselves.  They 
can  only  be  formed  from  practice ;  and  it  is  a 
good  effect  of  this  kind  of  Examination,   that   it 


The  Alathcmatical  Tripos.  iSi 

will  Induce  tutors  to  habituate  pupils  to  oral  ques- 
tioning ;  to  ensure  this,  however,  It  is  necessary 
that  the  viva  voce  portion  of  the  Examination 
should  be  made  of  considerable  importance. 

The  University  legislation  of  1848  proceeded 
on  the  right  track;  it  recognised  in  part  the  dis- 
tinctive functions  of  Examinations,  and  pro- 
vided separately  for  the  discharge  of  each. 
Three  days  were  allotted  to  the  elementary  sub- 
jects, which  were  to  be  treated  without  analysis, 
and  every  candidate  had  to  obtain  his  degree  by 
this  Examination.  This  regfulation  was  framed 
purely  with  a  view  to  education.  The  distinctive 
conceptions  belonging  to  the  several  physical  sub- 
jects, which  are  of  great  educational  value,  are  met 
with  in  the  elementary  parts  of  these  subjects, 
and  room  was  now  given  for  forcing  them  on  the 
attention  of  the  student.  Those  who  merely 
read  mathematics  to  qualify  themselves  for  the 
Classical  Tripos  found  It  advisable  to  confine 
themselves  to  the  lower  subjects,  and  In  those 
they  had  an  ample  examination  Instead  of  a  few 
scattered  questions.  After  a  short  Interval  the 
Examination  was  resumed,  and  questions  in  the 
higher  subjects,  treated  of  course  by  the  analytical 
methods,  were  then  set.  This  portion  of  the 
Examination  was  meant  to  answer  the  needs  both 


1 82  The  JMathcmatical  Tripos. 

of  classification  and  also  of  scientific  training.  The 
places  of  candidates  in  the  list  depended  on  the 
combined  result  of  the  two  Examinations. 

Dr  Peacock  and  Dr  Whewell  had  also  urged 
another  point,  viz.  the  limitatron  both  of  the 
range  of  subjects  comprised  in  the  Senate- House 
Examination,  and  also  of  the  extent  of  each  sub- 
ject in  itself.  They  prevailed  so  far,  that  a  paper 
of  directions  to  the  Examiners  was  issued  by  the 
Board  of  Studies  in  1850.  The  document  is  to  be 
found  in  the  Report  of  the  Cambridge  Commission 
of  1852,  in  the  evidence  of  the  Rev.  J.  G.  Mould, 
Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Corpus  Christi  College. 
It  recommended  the  omission  of  investigations 
about  which  mathematicians  are  not  agreed,  and 
of  those  which  lead  to  long  analytical  processes. 
Under  the  first  head  the  mathematical  theories  of 
Heat,  Electricity  and  Magnetism,  then  somewhat 
imperfect,  but  on  which  a  question  or  two  had  been 
asked  occasionally,  were  excluded,  and  under  the 
second  the  student  was  relieved  of  much  dead 
weight.  The  result  of  these  measures  certainly 
was  satisfactory  in  an  educational  point  of  view, 
and  the  Examinations  retained  their  efficiency  in 
determining  the  relative  merits  of  candidates. 

The  Examination  continued  to  be  governed 
by  this  code  of  regulations  for  twenty  years.    The 


The  ]\Iathcinatical  Tripos.  1S3 


change  that  grew  up  in  the  meantime  was  in  the 
direction  of  the  extension  of  science. 

The  Universities  have  two  aspects,  they  are 
seats  of  learning  and  they  are  places  of  education: 
they  are  regarded  sometimes  more  especially  in 
the  one  light,  sometimes  in  the  other.  In  former 
times  the  functions  of  the  teacher  and  the  savant 
could  be  perfectly  well  combined  in  an  indivi- 
dual ;  science  did  not  exact  such  exclusive  de- 
votion as  she  does  now,  and  education  did  not 
involve  the  labour  and  anxiety  of  constantly 
preparing  classes  for  Examination — the  greater 
pressure  of  our  time  calls  for  a  division  of  labour 
in  this  as  in  other  things.  The  casts  of  mind  re- 
quired for  a  man  of  science  and  a  teacher,  though 
sometimes  combined,  are  in  one  respect  different. 
Sympathy  with  other  minds  is  not  essential  for 
the  former ;  with  the  latter  it  is  all  in  all.  The 
former  must  be  devoted  avant  tout  to  the  pursuit 
of  truth  in  the  abstract,  the  latter  must  look  mainly 
to  the  improvement  of  his  pupils.  If  he  lights  on 
a  new  problem  or  illustration,  he  takes  an  especial 
interest  in  it  if  it  will  serve  to  awaken  clearer 
conceptions  in  some  of  his  class;  he  is  concerned  in 
science  chiefly  as  a  vehicle  of  education  ;  while  his 
own  special  knowledge  turns  on  the  individual  va- 
rieties of  young  minds  and  their  laws  of  growtli 


1 84  The  ]\IatJicrnatical  Tripos. 

and  action.  To  be  a  G^ood  schoolmaster  a  man 
must  first  understand  boys.  The  interest  of  the 
savant,  on  the  other  hand,  is  in  science  for  her 
own  sake — he  counts  himself  rewarded  if  he  can 
add  something  to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge, 
as  the  other  does  if  he  have  called  out  latent 
intelligence  and  directed  into  a  definite  channel 
abilities  which  were  running  to  waste. 

Owing  to  this  diversity,  we  mark  in  the 
history  of  the  Tripos  the  action  of  an  educa- 
tional interest  and  a  scientific  interest — to  use  the 
terms  rather  in  a  colloquial  sense.  Those  who 
looked  mainly  on  the  University  as  a  place  of 
learning  were  impatient  of  its  being  regarded  as  a 
mere  school.  They  demanded  that  Cambridge 
teaching  should  embrace  the  sciences  of  Heat, 
Electricity  and  Magnetism,  which  were  becoming 
of  immense  importance  and  use,  and  were  falling 
more  and  niore  under  mathematical  treatment ; 
and  their  demand  was  most  just.  Scientific  posts 
were  being  multiplied,  men  were  wanted  to  fill 
them,  a  professional  scientific  education  was  re- 
quired, and  where,  if  not  at  Cambridge,  it  was 
asked,  was  this  to  be  got  ?  Cambridge,  it  was 
truly  said,  represented  the  mathematical  learning 
of  England,  and  it  was  derogatory  to  the  country 
that  the  view    of  science   she    presented    should 


The  Mathematical  Tripos.  1S5 

be  scanty  or  imperfect.  This  view  was  gene- 
rally admitted,  but  it  did  not  follow  that  these 
advanced  subjects  should  be  introduced  into  the 
Tripos  Examination,  which,  as  some  maintained, 
represented  only  a  liberal  education  in  mathematics 
and  not  a  special  one.  As,  however,  the  main  in- 
terest at  Cambridge  was  fastened  on  the  Tripos, 
there  appeared  to  be  no  other  way  of  drawing  atten- 
tion to  those  subjects  than  by  admitting  them  into 
it.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  plain  that  the  course 
would  be  so  much  extended  by  the  admission 
of  these  new  subjects,  that  no  student  could  pos- 
sibly master  the  whole  in  his  three  years  and  a 
quarter.  After  much  discussion  a  scheme  was 
put  forth  including  the  above-named  branches  of 
study,  increasing  the  length  of  the  Examination 
and  allotting  certain  proportions  of  credit  to  the 
different  subjects.  It  was  hoped  that  students 
would  be  induced  to  select  a  limited  course  for 
thorough  study.  Many  persons  of  experience 
feared,  with  good  grounds,  that  these  hopes  would 
prove  vain,  and  that  some  students  would  do  as 
they  had  done  before,  viz.  attempt  to  learn  scraps 
of  the  easier  parts  of  nearly  all  the  subjects. 
Much  opposition  was  made  to  the  Grace,  but  it 
was  felt  that  if  it  were  rejected  the  important 
subjects    in    question   would  for  a   long  time   be 


1 86  The  Mathe77tatical  Tripos. 

excluded  from  University  teaching,  and  that  the 
University  might  be  thought  indifferent  to  the 
o^rowinof  needs  of  science  :  it  was  also  sucforested 
that  if  the  evils  anticipated  came  about,  they 
would  soon  be  practically  felt,  and  therefore  would 
soon  call   for  a  remedy. 

This  scheme  came  into  operation  in  1873,  and 
has  undergone  no  change  up  to  the  present  time 
(1875).  Prospects  were  held  out  that  the  Board 
of  Mathematical  Studies  would  issue  a  schedule 
curtailing  some  of  the  subjects,  but  this  has  not 
appeared.  Such  a  schedule  is  urgently  wanted  ; 
that  which  was  put  forward  in  1850  has  passed 
out  of  mind,  and  it  would  only  apply  to  a  part  of 
the  present  course. 

Our  narrative  of  the  History  of  the  Tripos  is 
now  at  an  end.  The  principles  which  have  come 
to  light  in  the  course  of  it  may  guide  us  in  judging 
of  the  defects  of  the  existing  system,  and  of  the 
direction  in  which  we  are  to  look  for  a  remedy. 

The  Examination  now  seems  to  contemplate 
a  liberal  education  mixed  up  with  a  technically 
scientific  one.  We  ought  to  have  distinct  Exami- 
nations corresponding  to  each  kind.  Many  of  the 
more  abstruse  subjects,  as  learned  by  the  great 
mass  of  students,  convey  few  new  conceptions  and 
merely  load  the   memory.      The  value  of  these 


The  Mathcniatical  Tripos.  187 


subjects  lies  in  the  application  of  them,  and  this 
application  few  students  ever  make.  The  course 
is  now  so  long  that  the  mind  of  a  student  who 
would  carry  the  whole  into  one  Examination  is 
injuriously  distracted,  and  his  general  education  is, 
in  a  degree,  sacrificed  to  the  training  him  for  the 
struggle.  So  long  as  the  subjects  comprised  in 
the  Tripos  were  not  too  extensive  to  be  mastered 
during  the  student's  course,  there  was  no  need  for 
a  boy  at  school  to  be  pushed  far  forward  in  mathe- 
matics. The  race  was  to  be  run  at  Cambridge, 
and  formerly  few  arrived  there  bringing  with 
them  enough  mathematical  knowledge  to  be  of 
importance  compared  with  what  might  be  attained 
at  the  University ;  but  now  when  no  one  can 
possibly  master  all  the  subjects  in  the  allotted 
time,  it  adds  greatly  to  the  weight  of  metal  a 
candidate  can  bring  to  bear  In  the  final  contest, 
for  him  to  have  read  before  coming  up  what 
would  otherwise  occupy  his  first  two  years.  In 
consequence  we  have  in  every  year  a  dozen 
freshmen  who  might  be  high  Senior  Optimes  at 
the  end  of  their  first  Term,  but  who  are  some- 
times defective  in  other  departments  of  educa- 
tion. A  provision,  indeed,  is  made  in  the  University 
for  testing  the  possession  of  the  elements  of  a 
creneral  education.     This  is  called   the    Previous 


iSS  The  Mathematical  Tripos. 

Examination  (Little-go),  but  as  it  does  not  bear 
on  the  great  race  in  which  the  competitor  is  to 
win  his  prize,  it  is  looked  on  as  an  interruption, 
which  must  be  got  over  as  soon  as  possible.  If 
a  boy  at  school  shew  mathematical  talent,  he  is 
often  withdrawn  from  part  of  his  studies  that  he 
may  be  brought  forward  in  that  subject,  by  ex- 
celling in  which  he  may  gain  glory  for  his  school 
and  advantages  for  himself  in  competitive  Exami- 
nations. One  side  of  his  mind  is  thus  early  de- 
veloped disproportionately  to  the  rest,  while  some 
regions  of  it  are  left  uncultivated  and  may  be- 
come less  apt  to  receive  cultivation.  Strong  and 
genial  natures  will  take  care  of  themselves  when 
they  get  to  the  University.  They  will  have  spare 
energy  enough  to  create  for  themselves  counter- 
vailing Interests  In  literature  and  society,  or  if  their 
physique  allow  it  in  outdoor  sports  ;  but  with  those 
of  less  general  power  and  vivacity — especially  If 
they  arc  working  with  no  love  for  their  study,  but 
are  toiling  prematurely  as  bread-winners  by  the 
sweating  of  their  brains — the  danger  of  unhealthy 
action  of  the  nervous  system  from  undue  concen- 
tration is  considerable,  and  such  need  to  be  watched 
over  with  intelligent  care. 

The  great  extent  of  our  course  not  only  harms 
some  of  the  Individuals  who  are  training  for  It,  but 


The  Ulathcutatical  Tripos.  1S9 

it  will  eventually  thin  our  competitors,  for  it  dis- 
courages all  who  are  not  already  good  mathema- 
ticians when  they  come  to  the  University.  It  may 
be  predicted  that  if  the  present  state  of  things 
continues,  the  Mathematical  Tripos  will  decline  in 
numbers.  When  a  young  man  of  ambition  looks 
round  him  on  coming  to  the  University,  he  will 
not  choose  a  career  in  which  he  has  no  chance  of 
high  distinction;  and  if  he  sees  no  prospect  of  this 
in  the  Mathematical  Tripos  on  account  of  his 
having  received  a  general  education  and  not  a 
special  mathematical  one,  he  will  take  to  one  of 
the  Triposes  which  deal  with  subjects  like  Law, 
or  Moral  Science,  where  he  starts  fair  and  can 
cover  the  ground  in  the  time  allotted ;  or  else  he 
will  put  off  his  coming  and  be  so  much  the  later 
in  entering  on  the  work  of  life. 

The  remedy  must  be  sought,  as  I  have  said,  in 
distributing  the  subjects  into  two  Examinations. 
It  had  been  hoped  that  each  student  would  make 
a  selection  for  himself:  this,  as  was  foreseen,  he 
does  not  usually  do,  and  it  must  be  done  for  him. 

Much  advantage  was  found  by  dividing  the 
Examination  into  parts  to  represent  the  Pass  and 
Honour  functions  of  the  Examination.  We  must 
now  make  a  further  division,  and  this  I  think  will 
be  better  done  by  dividing  the  subjects  according 


1 90  The  ]\Iathematical  Tfipos. 

to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  studied, — 
whether  for  mental  traininsf  or  for  scientific  use — 
than  according  to  the  conceptions  they  involve. 
In  place  of  the  latter  part  of  our  present  Tripos 
I  would  have  two  Examinations,  one  answering 
to  our  idea  of  a  hio-h  liberal  education  in  mathe- 
matics,  and  another  framed  to  test  the  possession 
of  advanced  scientific  knowledge,  such  as  might  be 
suited  for  persons  whose  intended  course  in  life 
required  them  to  be  conversant  with  the  higher 
branches  of  mathematical  and  physical  science. 
The  first  list  might  be  in  order  of  merit  as  now, 
the  second  in  classes  with  two  brackets  in  each. 

I  think  that  a  division  of  subjects  according  to 
the  end  with  a  view  to  which  they  are  studied,  is 
the  most  convenient  for  our  purpose,  because  the 
modes  of  reading  and  the  appropriate  kinds  of 
Examination  are  different  according  as  persons  are 
stud)ing  for  an  Examination  which  is  to  test  ability 
or  in  order  to  get  hold  of  the  subject  and  to  make 
use  of  it.  It  is  one  thino;  readino^  Law  for  Exami- 
nation,  another  reading  Law  for  Practice.  So  it 
is  with  Science.  A  student  reading  the  higher 
Dynamics,  for  instance,  for  Exaviination,  has  not 
half  done  his  work  when  he  has  mastered  the  theory 
and  can  make  the  plain  applications  of  it  he  would 
want  for  any  practical  purpose.    In  the  Polytechnic 


The  Mathanatical  Tripos.  191 

Schools  abroad  he  stops  at  this  point ;  if  he 
would  shew  superior  comprehension  he  evinces  this 
by  drawing  up  essays  -or  papers  on  particular 
points  of  the  subject  at  leisure.  He  learns  the 
subject  because  he  wants  to  know  it,  but  he  does 
not  require  to  have  all  the  artifices  which  are 
effective  for  solving  ingenious  puzzles  at  his 
fingers'  ends.  The  student  who  reads  for  a  place 
in  a  class  list  has  to  learn,  besides  the  subject  itself, 
every  possible  application  of  it  to  problems,  and 
must  be  familiar  with  those  algebraical  artifices 
which  are  essential  for  rapidly  bringing  out  re- 
sults :  in  fact  Examiners  regard  the  subject,  in 
a  degree,  as  affording  an  educational  exercise,  and 
furnishing  a  criterion  to  measure  ingenuity  by, 
while  the  savant  regards  it  as  a  branch  of  science 
of  which  he  wants  to  be  master. 

In  the  first  of  the  two  Examinations  into  which 
I  propose  to  split  that  part  of  our  present  Exa- 
mination which  follows  the  "first  three  days"  (for 
in  that  of  the  "first  three  days"  I  would  make  no 
serious  alteration),  the  subjects  would  continue  to 
be  treated  educationally,  but  with  some  view  to 
discrimination ;  that  is,  much  as  they  are  at  pre- 
sent. In  the  second  of  these  Examinations,  which 
would  be  the  tJiird  of  the  whole  system  (if  we  call 
that  of  the  "  first  three  days  "  the  first  part),  the 


192  The  Mathematical  Tripos. 

highest  subjects,  with  which  alone  it  would  deal, 
should  be  treated  in  a  different  spirit;  they  should 
be  regarded  as  instruments  which  the  learner 
wants  to  be  able  to  handle  for  scientific  use  and 
for  the  prosecution  of  research.  He  should  have 
his  eyes  turned  toward  experimental  investigation, 
and  should  be  taught  to  estimate  nicely  the  nature 
and  value  of  the  evidence  thus  obtained. 

The  Tripos  system  would  then  consist  of  three 
Examinations,  the  first  and  second  of  which  would 
be  combined  as  the  two  parts  of  our  Examination 
now  are,  and  the  third,  the  higher  scientific  Exa- 
mination, would  stand  to  the  rest  something  in  the 
same  relation  which  that  for  the  Smith's  Prize  now 
holds.  The  Smith's  Prizes-*-  might  be  awarded  by 
it,  and  the  Professors  might  take  part  in  it.  I  do 
not  enter  into  the  question  of  the  times  at  which 
these  Examinations  should  be  held,  because  I  am 
only  sketching  an  outline  of  a  plan.  The  subjects 
of  the  second  Examination  should  be  chosen  for 
their  educational  value,  including,  for  instance,  all 
those  now  placed  in  the  first  division  and  a  few 
others.  These  might  be  mastered  by  able  students 
in  three  years.  The  majority  of  candidates  would 
not  proceed  to  the  further  scientific  Examination. 

'  These  are  two  Prizes  for  proficiency  in  the  higher  Mathematics  and 
Natural  I'liilosopliy,  tlie  Examination  is  conducted  by  the  Professors  of 
Mathematics  and  is  held  soon  after  the  pubUcation  of  the  Tripos  list. 


The  Matlicy7tatical  Tripos.  193 

The  list  in  order  of  merit,  drawn  up  from  the 
combined  result  of  the  first  and  second  Exa- 
minations, would  furnish  very  nearly  as  good  a 
criterion  of  general  ability  as  the  entire  Exami- 
nation now  affords.  Certain  College  rewards,  not 
excessive  in  value,  might  be  awarded  for  distin- 
guished success  in  this  portion  of  the  Examination 
alone.  Such  success  would  indicate  the  posses- 
sion of  many  of  the  qualities  which  go  to  make 
valuable  men  ;  it  would  shew  a  trained  memory,  a 
strong  head,  much  readiness  of  expression  and 
fertility  of  resource,  but  it  would  not  shew  the 
same  amount  of  positive  scientific  attainment  as  a 
high  place  in  the  Tripos  now  does. 

The  higher  subjects  which  would  be  dealt  with 
in  the  third  Examination,  may  possibly  in  time 
become  so  extensive  as  to  require  to  be  grouped 
in  two  divisions.  The  candidates  for  these  would 
be  manageable  in  point  of  number,  and  therefore 
a  viva  voce  Examination  would  be  practicable^. 
The  subjects  also  would    be  better   suited   to  it 

'  Some  of  the  advantages  of  a  vivd  voce  Examination  for  the  less  ad- 
vanced candidates,  might  be  obtained  by  giving  out,  vivd  voce,  one  by  one, 
some  plain  questions  on  the  principles  of  the  elementary  subjects  and 
i[uite  easy  examples.  These  shoul4  not  be  published.  The  Examiners 
would  not  think  it  beneath  them  to  give  simple  examples  in  this  way, 
though. they  will  not  introduce  into  a  paper  that  is  to  be  published,  ques- 
tiiins  which  do  not  shew  neatness,  and  require  ingenuity.  In  France  when 
an  example  is  appended   to  a  theorem,  it  is  a  simple  ajiplication.     The 

L.  I^ 


194  ^^^^  Mathematical  Tripos. 

than  the  mathematics  now  commonly  read.  The 
principles  of  these,  which  alone  afford  scope  for 
viva  voce  questions,  occupy  but  a  small  space  of 
the  whole.  In  the  higher  subjects,  however,  the 
Examination  might  be  to  a  certain  degree  prac- 
tical, and  this  part  of  it  should  be  held  in  a 
laboratory.  Candidates  might  then  be  called  on 
to  perform  simple  experiments,  to  point  out  the 
conditions  required  for  accurate  and  trustworthy 
results,  and  to  explain  phenomena  brought  under 
their  eyes. 

The  class-list  in  this  scientific  Examination 
would  not,  I  think,  require  to  be  arranged  in  order 
of  merit.  There  misfht  be  two  or  three  classes,  and 
two  brackets  in  each  class.  This  would  remove 
one  of  the  objections  to  a  viva  voce  Examination 
stated  some  pages  back.  The  candidates  might 
take  very  different  courses  of  reading,  so  that  the 
Examination  would  be  imperfectly  homogeneous, 
and  therefore  attempts  at  closer  classification 
might  prove  fallacious  ;  while  a  place  in  the  first 
class  would  be  sufficient  distinction  to  justify  the 
colleees  in  awardin(>-  emoluments  to  those  who 
obtained  it,  and  would  mark  out  those  who  shewed 

• 

"riders,"  with  us,  have  became  jiroljlem?;,  and  many  students  therefore  con- 
fine their  atteiition  to  the  questions  from  l)ooks.  It  would  assimihite  the 
action  to  that  of  vivA  voce,  if  negative  marks  could  be  given  for  errors 
in  elementary  principles,  or  for  the  declining  to  give  an  answer. 


I 


The  Mathematical  Tripos.  195 

qualifications  for  the  prosecution  of  scientific  re- 
search or  for  high  educational  posts. 

Having  traced  the  growth  of  our  Tripos  sys- 
tem to  its  present  condition,  I  have  thought  it 
worth  while  to  point  out  the  nature  of  the  further 
chancres  which  I  would  suo-aest  for  consideration. 
They  would  present  a  development  in  accordance 
with  the  history.  It  would  not  suit  my  purpose 
or  rny  limits  to  enter  into  detailed  proposals  for 
a  University  measure.  Still  less  can  I  deal  with 
the  philosophical  principles  of  mathematical  edu- 
cation. Should  a  treatise  on  this  subject  be  re- 
([uired,  a  rich  store  of  materials  will  be  found  in 
the  Report  of  the  French  Commissioners  to  which 
I  have  referred,  and  also  in  the  evidence  on  the 
Mathematical  Tripos  given  in  the  Report  of  the 
Commissioners  of  1852,  much  of  which  (that  es- 
pecially of  Professor  Stokes  and  Mr  Robert  Leslie 
Ellis)  is  of  the  highest  value,  and  contains  material 
most  deserving  of  being  preserved  in  a  more  ac- 
cessible form. 

I  have  been  struck  as  I  proceeded,  with  the 
amount  of  deep  thought  and  practical  sense  which 
has  been  brought  to  bear  on  the  framinof  of  our 
Examination,  and  I  cannot  too  highly  estimate  the 
advantages  which  our  system  has  derived  from 
its  operation  having  been  always  under  the  eyes 

I ; — 2 


196  The  Mathematical  Tripos. 

and  under  the  control  of  an  educational  body, 
quick  to  observe  the  wants  that  made  themselves 
felt  and  thoroughly  honest  in  endeavouring  to 
remedy  the  evils  that  became  sensible  from  time 
to  time.  I  should  be  glad  for  our  existing  stu- 
dents to  feel  their  obligations  to  those,  of  whose 
foregone  thought  and  care  they  are  the  inheritors. 

I  have  had  to  speak  of  the  evils  arising  from 
the  too  great  extent  of  our  subjects  at  the  pre- 
sent time.  These  evils,  however,  it  must  be 
recollected  only  affect  a  few  students — perhaps  a 
sixth  part  of  the  candidates  for  the  Tripos. 
Those  who  have  no  hopes  of  the  highest  distinc- 
tion are  free  from  this  undue  strain,  and  they 
sometimes  gain  more  in  proportion  to  their  powers 
from  their  University  residence  than  those  who 
have  a  prospect  of  much  greater  success. 

My  views  of  the  action  of  the  Examination  on 
the  whole  are  well  expressed  in  a  passage  which 
I  will  quote  from  the  evidence  of  Mr  William 
Hopkins,  who  after  making  certain  criticisms,  con- 
cludes as  follows  : — 

"Let  me  not  be  thought,  in  making  tliese  remarks,  to  under- 
value tlie  excellence  of  our  present  examinations  and  the  in- 
fluence they  exercise  over  our  studies.  The  facility  and 
accuracy  with  which  our  Students  go  through  complicated 
l)rocesses  of  mathematical  investigation,  and  the  command 
they  accjuire  over  the  ordinary  artifices  of  analysis,  arc  very 


I 


The  JMathematical  Tripos.  197 

remarkable  and  very  much  facilitate  their  progress  in  any 
higher  mathematical  researches  to  which  they  may  afterwards 
apply  themselves.  There  is  also  another  consequence  of  our 
mode  of  examination,  which,  in  considering  our  system  of 
studies  as  one  of  mental  discipline,  can  hardly  be  too  highly 
appreciated.  The  necessity  of  giving  brief  and  accurate 
answers  to  the  questions  proposed,  superinduces  the  necessity 
also  of  a  distinct  and  logical  arrangement  of  the  successive- 
steps  of  a  demonstration  and  the  habitual  use  of  condensed 
and  accurate  language.  The  tendency  to  careless  and  illogical 
habits  of  thought,  existing  in  most  undisciplined  minds,  finds 
in  this  system  as  perfect  a  correction  as  the  individual  cha- 
racter of  the  Student  will  admit  of.  It  has  often  been  a  matter 
of  great  interest  with  me  to  watch  the  gradual  development  of 
this  exactness  of  thought  and  perspicuity  of  language.  The 
young  Student  frequently  commences  his  studies  here  with 
great  defects  in  these  respects;  but  where  there  has  been 
sufficient  intellectual  power  and  activity,  I  have  never  failed  to 
witness  a  rapid  improvement,  as  the  result  of  our  system,  from 
the  moment  he  became  sensible  of  his  own  deficiency,  and 
(which  is  equally  essential)  that  it  could  only  be  amended 
by  his  own  persistent  efforts,  and  not  merely  by  the  corrections 
which  his  Tutors  might  from  time  to  time  suggest  to  him. 
The  perfect  arrangement  and  style  with  which  many  of  our 
higher  Students  answer  the  questions  proposed  to  them  consti- 
tutes one  of  most  striking  results  of  our  system.  I  could  wish 
to  see  the  same  power  called  forth  more  effectively  on  a  larger 
scale, — in  the  exposition  of  the  more  general  principles  and 
results  of  mathematical  science  as  well  as  in  the  development 
of  its  individual  propositions'.'' 

^  "Report  of  Iler  Majesty's  Commissioners,  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  state  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  1852,"  p.  243. — Evidence  of  W. 
Hopkins,  Esq.,  M.A. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE   FUJSXTIONS   OF   EXAMINATIONS.     SELECTION. 

It  has  been  said  that  what  is  cahed  scientific 
method  consists  in  applying  to  abstruse  matters 
the  homely  maxim  of  doing  one  thing  or  con- 
siderinof  one  train  of  circumstances  at  a  time. 
This  remark  is  illustrated  by  the  foregoing  sketch 
of  the  History  of  the  Mathematical  Tripos  at 
Cambridge.  By  degrees  it  was  understood  that 
Examinations  fulfilled  many  different  purposes, 
each  of  which  might  be  best  effected  by  some  par- 
ticular mode  of  examininof.  We  mifjht  not  want 
a  separate  Examination  for  each  purpose,  but  we 
ought  to  know  how  each  purpose  might  be  effected 
and  the  relative  importance  we  attach  to  it. 

Clearly,  then,  the  first  thing  to  be  settled  about 
any  Examination  scheme  was,  What  was  intended 
to  be  done  by  it  ?  The  discussions  that  took 
place  at  Cambridge  shew  that  the  proposers  of 
schemes  were  often  by  no  means  agreed  on  this 
primary  point,  and  it  was  very  much  through 
these  debates,  and  from  people  finding  that  they 


The  Fimctions  of  Exmninatioiis.     Selection.      199 

failed  to  undcM'stand  one  another  because  the)' 
were  driving-  at  different  ends,  that  the  com- 
plexity of  the  action  of  Examinations  came  to  be 
perceived. 

Having  cleared  their  minds  as  to  what  they 
wanted,  the  next  point  to  be  considered  was 
to  what  degree,  if  at  all,  Examinations  could  effect 
what  was  required.  The  practical  acquaintance 
which  most  residents  in  the  University  had  with 
Examinations  shewed  them,  that  as  means  of 
selection  these  could  only  be  relied  upon  to  de- 
tect particular  qualities,  and  that  even  for  them 
it  was  very  important  to  know  under  what  cir- 
cumstances the  knowledge  had  been  acquired. 
The  efficacy  of  Examinations  as  a  means  of  call- 
ing out  the  interest  of  a  pupil  and  directing  it 
into  the  desired  channels  was  soon  recognised 
by  teachers.  They  were  supposed  to  furnish  a 
stimulus  or  motive  power  which  could  be  applied 
to  produce  any  required  kind  of  mental  cultiva- 
tion :  but  as  the  Examination  itself  is  not  the  mo- 
tive to  study,  but  only  the  mechanism  whereby 
the  efficient  motive  for  learning — whatever  it  may 
be,  the  desire  of  gain,  or  distinction,  or  knowledge 
for  its  own  sake — is  embodied  in  a  form  in  which 
it  can  be*  readily  brought  to  bear  on  the  pupil,  this 
motive  power  is  not  got  without  something  that 


200     The  Fitnctions  of  Exa77iinatio7is.     Selection. 

is  expended  to  obtain  it.  Some  advantage  must 
be  in  prospect.  The  Examination  is  the  engine, 
not  the  fuel,  and  will  only  act  as  long  as  there 
are  prizes  or  honours  to  be  awarded.  In  the  case, 
indeed,  of  one  who  can  work  for  an  Examination 
merely  to  satisfy  himself  that  he  is  acquainted 
with  a  subject,  the  fuel,  so  to  say,  is  self-supplied. 

Finally  came  the  question  of  what  was  the 
best  way  of  using  Examinations  for  the  purpose 
we  had  in  view.  If  we  could  answer  this  posi- 
tively and  fully  we  should  see  our  way  to  that 
scientific  system  of  Examinations  which  Dean 
Alerivale,  in  his  evidence  given  to  the  Cambridge 
Commission,  pointed  out  as  the  most  promising 
solution  of  certain  difficulties  that  beset  the  higher 
education. 

As  yet,  however,  no  step  has  been  taken  to- 
wards bringing  the  subject  into  that  degree  of 
order  which  it  must  attain  before  science  can  deal 
with  it.  In  education,  indeed,  we  may  hope  to 
see  some  scientific  classification,  of  tendencies  at 
any  rate,  though  the  deductions  of  theory  will, 
owing  to  disturbing  causes,  often  disagree  with 
the  facts.  We  may  get  some  ideas  of  the  most 
advantaijeous  mode  of  usino;;  examinations  for 
forming  the  mental  habits  or  testing  the  acquire- 
ments we  want  the   pupil  to  possess  ;    but,  as  I 


The  Fu7tctions  of  Examinations.     Selection.     201 

said  in  the  second  Chapter,  when  we  use  Exami- 
nation for  selection,  the  matter  becomes  compli- 
cated by  many  social  and  political  considerations 
over  and  above  the  difficulties  naturally  attaching 
to  it. 

No  particular  sort  of  Examination  will  produce 
one  kind  of  effect  or  test  one  quality,  and  that  alone, 
any  more  than  any  drug-  in  the  Materia  Medica 
will  produce  one  particular  action  on  a  particular 
organ,  and  no  other  whatever,  on  any  part  of  the 
system.  Hence  we  have  "intermixture  of  effects," 
and  we  cannot  sort  our  ao^ents  according  to  what 
we  want  them  for,  and  label  each  of  them,  like 
cakes  of  watercolour  in  a  box;  all  we  can  do,  after 
settling  what  qualities  we  are  looking  for,  is  to 
find  out  by  what  signs  we  may  judge  of  their 
presence,  what  kind  of  Examination  will  best 
bring  them  out,  and  then,  what  indirect  effects  this 
kind  of  Examination  will  have  on  education. 

For  though,  to  give  some  kind  of  order 
to  our  inquiry,  I  shall  continue,  as  hitherto,  to  , 
consider  separately  Examinations  as  employed 
to  effect  selection  and  to  direct  education,  yet  we 
must  bear  in  mind  that  this  distinction  is  only 
actually  true  when  we  regard  the  purpose  in 
the  minds  of  those  who  draw  up  the  schemes, 
and  that  as  soon  as  an  Examination  comes  into 


2  02      The  Functions  of  Examinatio7is.     Selection. 

operation,  the  two  kinds  of  action  must  neces- 
sarily take  place  together.  There  must  be  dis- 
crimination, or  something  equivalent,  because  the 
candidates  must  aim  at  success  in  the  Examina- 
tion; it  has  no  effect  if  they  do  not,  and  by  suc- 
cess they  mean  either  proving  their  superiority 
to  others,  or  getting  a  warrant  of  proficiency: 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  although  the  framers  may 
have  regarded  the  Examination  only  as  a  sieve  to 
sort  out  the  article  they  require,  yet  it  must  have 
an  educational  effect :  for  the  dimensions  of  the 
interstices  will  be  accurately  measured  by  teach- 
ers and  trainers,  and  an  article  will  be  produced 
which,  at  the  least  cost  of  brains  and  labour,  will 
fulfil  the  conditions  required. 

The  importance  of  this  last  consideration  is 
seen  when  we  consider  on  what  grounds  the  com- 
petitive system  is  most  fully  justified.  When  ap- 
plied to  Government  appointments  it  may  have 
some  convenience  as  a  mode  of  avoiding  jobbery 
and  solicitation ;  but,  as  is  said  in  the  second 
Chapter,  unless  it  can  be  so  carried  out  as  to 
do  more  good  than  harm  to  education,  we  only 
ofet  one  kind  of  mischief  instead  of  another — and 
there  is  a  large  class  of  emoluments,  such  as 
Fellowships  at  Colleges,  and  Scholarships  both  at 
Colleges   and  Schools,  whose   7'aison  d'etre  is  in 


The  Ftaictio7is  of  Examinaiions.    Selection.     203 

great  part  to  assist  in  promotinrr  high  cultiva- 
tion. We  ought  to  find  in  such  improvement  a 
return  for  the  time,  labour,  and  money  expended 
in  competition.  I  have  shewn  (page  67)  that  a 
high  liberal  education  will  not  generally  be  ob- 
tained by  any  but  those  who  have  means  and  lei- 
sure as  well  as  an  appreciation  of  learning,  unless 
by  means  of  endowments,  as  in  England,  or  by  the 
enforcing  of  a  thorough  School  and  University  cur- 
riculum as  a  condition  for  entrance  to  any  liberal 
profession  or  for  holding  the  higher  Government 
posts,  as  is  the  case  in  Prussia.  The  latter  course  -7 
is  out  of  the  question  in  England ;  our  ideas  of 
the  liberty  of  the  subject  would  be  outraged  by 
the  State  taking  possession  of  the  boy,  and  deny- 
ing to  his  parents  their  right  of  dealing  with  him 
in  their  own  way.  Hence,  if  we  are  to  support  a 
high  general  standard  of  liberal  education,  it  must 
be  done  by  making  such  education  appear  re- 
niunerative,  and  the  cheapest  way  of  doing  this  is 
to  turn  to  account  the  hopefulness  of  young  people 
and  their  parents  by  holding  out  rewards  to  com- 
petition ;  we  hereby  enlist  on  our  side  the  spirit  of 
contest  of  the  younger  people  and  the  sanguine  ex- 
pectations which  their  elders  entertain  of  them, 
and,  as  has  been  shewn,  for  one  who  gets  a  prize, 
forty  may  obtain  a  high  education  in  aiming  at  it. 


204      TJie  FuTLctions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

In  this  view  the  effect  on  the  learners  is  more 
Important  than  the  accuracy  of  selection.  We 
have  to  do  with  the  formation  of  the  mental  habits, 
and  even  the  moral  character  of  those  who  may 
be  in  positions  of  great  importance  connected 
either  with  the  Government  or  with  the  education 
of  the  country ;  and  it  is  essential,  not  only  that 
the  knowledge  should  be  genuine,  but  that  it 
should  be  attained  in  a  way  which  inculcates  high 
views  of  the  purposes  of  learning  and  a  chivalrous 
feeling  of  honour.  If  we  damage  the  general 
standard  of  truthfulness  by  leading  young  men  to 
glory  in  having  outwitted  Examiners  and  seemed 
to  be  what  they  are  not,  by  the  dexterous  use  of 
a  scrap  of  information,  then  w^e  lose  far  more 
morally  than  we  gain  in  any  other  way. 

When  we  set  about  selecting  by  means  of 
Examinations  the  person  who  shall  be  most  able 
or  best  educated,  we  at  once  become  aware  of 
how  ill-defined  our  notions  of  ability  and  educa- 
tion are.  A  full  analysis  of  these  notions  would 
fill  a  larger  volume  than  I  mean  to  write,  and  so 
I  must  limit  myself  to  explaining  what  I  mean 
by  these  terms,  when  it  is  necessary  to  do  so,  not 
with  any  pretence  to  philosophical  precision  or  to 
completeness,  but  so  as  to  establish  an  under- 
standinof  with  the  reader. 


The  Functions  of  Exa^ninations.     Selection.     205 

We  have  then,  now,  before  us  the  whole  sub- 
ject of  Examinations,  so  far  as  their  testing  func- 
tion is  concerned.  This  gives  us  an  unwieldy 
mass  of  matter  to  deal  with,  and  we  may  be 
thankful  for  any  mode  of  breaking  it  up  into  more 
manageable  portions;  we  very  soon  come  in  sight 
of  a  distinction  which  will  be  of  service  to  us  in 
this  respect.  What  Examinations  elicit  directly 
is  always,  either  the  knowledge  of  the  candidate, 
as,  for  instance,  an  acquaintance  with  facts  or  the 
matter  of  certain  books,  or  else  it  is  the  result 
of  knowledge  which  has  been  assimilated,  and 
out  of  which  there  springs  2i  faculty,  such  as  that 
of  writing  a  foreign  language,  or  of  solving  pro- 
blems. But  w^e  may  regard  this  knowledge  in 
two  very  different  ways, — we  may  want  it  for 
itself,  or  for  what  it  tells  us  about  the  man.  It 
has  more  or  less  intrinsic  value,  and  at  the  same 
time  it  shews  us  something  of  the  powers  of  the 
man  who  has  acquired  it. 

We  may  go  to  an  Exhibition  either  to  find  a 
picture  to  our  mind,  or  to  pick  out  the  artist 
who  is  most  suited  to  execute  some  work  for 
which  we  wish  to  give  a  commission.  In  these 
two  cases  we  regard  the  pictures  differenth'.  In 
the  first  case  the  beaut)-  of  the  subject  of  the 
picture   will   go  far  v/ith   us,  in   the   second   it  is 


2o6      The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

unimportant.  We  may  perhaps  get  more  Insight 
into  the  artist's  powers  from  a  spirited  sketch 
than  from  a  highly  finished  performance,  and  we 
shall  especially  pay  attention  to  a  picture  eliciting 
the  particular  qualities  wanted  for  the  work  w^e 
wish  to  get  done. 

Examinations  may  in  like  manner  be  used  in 
two  ways.  They  serve  as  a  criterion  of  the  pos- 
session of  particular  kinds  of  knowledge  or  skill 
for  those  who  have  to  employ  this  special  know- 
ledge or  skill  for  a  particular  purpose  :  but  they 
may  also  be  used  to  test  ability  of  a  more  general 
kind.  The  capacity  of  the  man  may  be  shewn 
by  the  character  of  his  work.  One  kind  of  work 
will  test  one  quality,  as  taste  or  imagination;  an- 
other which  involves  patient  labour,  will  shew  in- 
dustry and  self-denial.  Hence  we  should  choose 
our  testing  processes  differently  according  as  we 
are  on  the  look  out  for  attainments  or  for  ca- 
pacity, and  scrutinize  the  results  with  a  different 
eye,  in  the  two  cases. 

But  though  we  have  here  got  a  serviceable 
distinction,  it  does  not  go  very  far  ;  after  we  have 
traced  it  a  little  way  the  branches  become  inter- 
twined and  grow  together.  For  knowledge  helps 
to  foster  the  development  of  matured  ability.  We 
may  never  mean  to  use  the  knowledge  in  display- 


The  Functions  of  Ex.imiiiatlons.     Selection.    207 

ing  which  the  candidate  has  shewn  the  abihty 
which  recommends  him  to  us,  yet  the  possession 
of  this  may  be  a  source  of  constant  improvement 
to  him.  A  man  who  has  stored  up  a  fund  of 
knowledge  has  usually  a  greater  copiousness  of 
ideas — he  has  matter  at  hand  from  which  to  draw 
comparisons  or  illustrations — he  has  more  sources 
of  interest  open  to  him,  and  therefore  more  of  his 
faculties  are  kept  bright  from  use.  Hence,  in 
framing  an  Examination  to  test  ability,  although 
we  may  in  the  first  instance  look  to  the  qualities 
of  the  man,  and  direct  our  testing  appliances 
to  discover  this,  still  if  we  look  far  forward,  and 
wish  to  select  the  man  whose  career  is  likely 
to  be  the  most  serviceable,  we  must  have  an  eye. 
to  the  knowledge  with  which  he  has  equipped 
himself  before  starting,  not  for  its  practical  use, 
but  as  an  inner  help  to  future  self-cultivation, — 
this  is  more  necessary  the  more  the  nature  of 
his  future  occupation  will  preclude  general  read- 
ing, when  once  he  is  engaged  in  his  vocation — 
and  it  will  apply  more  particularly  to  those 
subjects  which  necessitate  some  drudgery  at  the 
outset,  or  which  usually  require  a  teacher,  like 
languages  or  mathematics.  A  man  who  wishes  to 
acquaint  himself  with  History  or  English  Litera- 
ture,   or   even    Political    Economy,    has    only    to 


2oS      The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

read  the  proper  books  ;  this  he  may  do  In  spare 
intervals,  but  a  busy  man  is  not  Hkely  to  write 
exercises,  or  to  famiharise  himself  with  mathe- 
matical processes.  The  two  Examinations  for 
the  Indian  Civil  Service  afford  good  instances  of 
Examinations  held  with  views  of  discriminating 
ability  and  knowledge  respectively. 

The  proposed  object  of  the  first  Examination 
by  which  the  candidates  are  selected,  is  to  choose 
the  ablest  young  men  out  of  a  large  body  of 
candidates.  The  way  in  which  they  acquit  them- 
selves in  the  different  subjects  which  may  possibly 
enter  into  a  liberal  education  is  taken  as  the 
criterion  of  ability.  This  plan,  under  the  conditions 
of  the  case  and  as  Examinations  were  then  under- 
stood, seemed  a  good  one.  The  defects  that  I 
have  mentioned  have  arisen  from  the  framers  not 
foreseeing  that  an  Examination  backed  by  large 
prizes  would  call  forth  a  special  sort  of  teaching : 
perhaps,  too,  they  overrated  the  sufficiency  of  a 
single  Examination,  unaided  by  an  acquaintance 
with  the  way  in  which  the  candidates  have  been 
taught,  for  testing  the  possession  of  the  desired 
qualities. 

They  were  quite  right  in  having  one  Examina- 
tion to  test  al^ilit}',  and  another  to  ensure  the 
possession  of  the  knowledge    required    for   pro- 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection.    209 

fessional  use.  In  the  first  Examination  they 
regard  the  candidate's  performances  in  Classics, 
Mathematics,  English  and  the  rest  of  the  sub- 
jects, with  a  view  to  judge  of  the  man.  He  will 
probably  rarely  bring  into  actual  use  in  his  of- 
ficial life  exactly  what  he  has  learned.  He  is 
not  selected  because  the  state  wants  to  avail 
itself  of  these  acquirements  ;  they  are  only  taken 
as  the  index  of  certain  qualities  shewn  in  the 
acquisition  of  them.  Hence  in  the  examination 
for  selection  it  may  matter  much  how  the  can- 
didate's knowledge  has  been  got.  His  German, 
for  instance,  may  have  been  learnt  analytically 
in  England,  much  as  a  dead  language  is,  and 
in  this  case  a  good  knowledge  will  betoken 
accuracy  and  the  power  of  grasping  the  principles 
of  grammar — or  it  may  have  been  learnt  as  a 
child  in  Germany,  in  which  case  it  tells  nothing 
of  the  man's  powers,  and  is  only  of  service  in 
estimating  the  man,  from  the  effect  which  any 
real  knowledge  has  in  improving  its  possessor ; 
one  who  can  turn  to  a  German  book  as  readily 
as  to  an  English  one,  has,  no  doubt,  access  to 
writers  who  are  particularly  valuable  in  keeping- 
alive  the  process  of  self-culture.  In  the  Further 
Examination  the  case  is  quite  different,  a  know- 
ledge of  Law  and  Indian   Languages  is  required 

L.  14 


2IO      The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection.. 

for  the  daily  needs  of  the  man's  prospective 
career,  and  all  that  the  Examiner  has  to  ascertain 
is  that  he  has  the  knowledge  that  is  wanted ; 
this  he  esteems  entirely  for  its  intrinsic  value. 
If  the  candidate  knows  Tamul  well,  it  does  not 
matter  how  or  where  he  got  it.  A  language 
learnt  analytically  may,  it  is  true,  be  more  firmly 
held  in  the  memory  than  one  learned  by  ear — 
the  more  laborious  method  may  perhaps  leave 
a  more  permanent  impression  on  the  cerebrum — 
and  this  consideration  would  have  to  be  taken 
into  account,  because  the  durability  of  know- 
ledge is  an  element  in  its  value ;  but  in  the  case 
before  us,  that  of  a  lanoruao^e  which  is  to  be 
constantly  used,  there  is  little  fear  of  its  being 
foro-otten. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  results  of  an  Exami- 
nation can  be  more  thoroughly  relied  upon  to 
test  the  possession  of  knowledge,  or  of  a  faculty 
engendered  by  the  assimilation  of  knowledge, 
than  to  determine  the  ability  of  the  man.  The 
business  of  the  Examiner  in  the  first  case  is 
much  more  simple.  He  wishes  to  see  if  a  can- 
didate possesses  some  accomplishment,  and  calls 
on  him  to  give  a  specimen  of  his  powers.  If  he 
profess  to  know  a  foreign  language,  he  may  be 
asked  to  speak,  to  write,  and  to  translate  ;    if  to 


The  Fimctions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 


21  1 


know  the  principles  of  Law,  he  can  be  asked 
to  state  them  and  to  apply  them  to  some  simple 
case ;  if  he  acquit  himself  with  credit,  then  we 
may  suppose  that  the  bulk  of  his  knowledge  will 
answer  to  the  sample,  for  the  passages  or  cases 
put  before  him  could  not  have  been  specially 
prepared. 

But  in  estimating  a  man's  mental  power  from 
the  knowledge  he  displays,  we  ought  to  know 
how  long  he  has  taken  to  acquire  it,  his  age,  and 
the  advantages  that  he  has  had.  No  doubt,  what- 
ever be  the  subjects  of  Examination,  unless  the 
questions  turn  wholly  on  dry  facts  or  mere  termi- 
nology, the  quality  of  a  man's  mind  will  be  shewn 
by  it  in  some  degree  ;  first-rate  ability  will  con- 
trive to  peep  out,  and  positive  stupidity  will  stand 
self-convicted.  But  if  the  Examiner's  object  is 
only  to  ascertain  what  the  candidate  knows  and 
not  what  he  is,  he  will  not  set  questions  in  order 
to  see  the  play  of  his  mind,  or  consider  his 
answers  with  this  view  ;  and  an  Examination  so 
conducted  cannot  be  trusted  to  indicate,  with  any 
nicety,  different  shades  of  ability. 

As  I  have  said,  in  substance,  before,  the  result 
that  we  get  by  passing  the  minds  of  candidates 
through  the  mill  of  Examinations,  is  a  compound 
in   which   the  elements  of  knowledge  and   ability 

14—2 


2  1 2     TJie  Fimdions  of  Examinations.     Sclectiojt. 

will  always  be  both  present,  but  mixed  in  very 
\'arying  proportions — ^frequently,  too,  they  will 
be  so  intimately  combined  that  it  is  no  easy 
matter  to  diseno^a8;-e  them.  A  man's  knowledo^e 
is  an  element  of  his  prospective  ability,  and  his 
ability  will  appear  in  the  character  of  his  know- 
ledge and  his  way  of  giving  it  out.  But  more 
delicate  machinery  and  nicer  handling  may  be 
wanted,  in  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  pos- 
sible proportion  of  the  more  subtle  of  these 
two  elements  in  the  yield  of  our  Examination- 
mill. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  deal  first  with  the  most 
difficult  case,  because  in  considering  this  we  shall 
be  led  to  a  rough  analysis  of  some  of  the  qualities 
which  characterize  the  kinds  of  ability  which  the 
framers  of  Examinations  mostly  have  in  view, 
and  this  analysis  will  enable  us  to  see  our  way 
better  in  what  follows.  To  consider,  then,  one 
point  at  a  time,  we  will  take  a  hypothetical  case. 
Let  us  suppose  that  out  of  a  body  of  candidates 
we  want  to  select  those  who  have  the  greatest 
intellectual  capacity,  those  who,  to  use  an  old 
phrase,  are  "of  the  most  superior  parts." 

Now  we  cannot  lay  bare  the  intellectual 
mechanism  and  judge  of  it  by  inspection,  we  can 
only  infer  the  excellence  of  the  internal  apparatus 


The  Fiuictions  of  Exa7ninations.    Selection.     213 

and  the  perfection  of  its  workmanship  from  the 
quahty  of  the  work  turned  out  :  this  work,  in 
the  case  of  young  people,  is  represented  by  the 
knowledge  they  have  attained  and  the  powers 
they  have  acquired.  We  must  form  our  estimate 
of  the  way  in  which  it  is  probable  that  a  young 
man  will  do  the  work  of  manhood  by  looking  at 
the  way  in  which  he  has  already  performed  the 
proper  work  of  )outh.  W^e  should  scrutinise 
therefore  the  character  and  amount  of  a  young 
man's  acquirements  in  this  case,  in  order  to  see 
what  light  they  throw  on  his  mental  constitution 
and  calibre. 

The  case  is  like  judging  of  the  works  of  a 
watch  by  its  accuracy  in  keeping  time,  or  of 
the  machinery  of  a  mill  by  the  texture  and 
smoothness  of  the  cloth  produced.  We  do  not 
want  in  this  case  to  set  a  value  on  the  fabric 
itself.  It  depends  very  much  on  the  quality  of 
the  cotton,  and,  besides,  we  are  not  thinking  of 
buying  the  cloth,  but  the  mill :  so  here,  we  are 
seeking  not  what  the  youth  knows,  but  what  he  is. 
We  are  going  to  use  him  not  as  an  expert,  but 
as  a  man. 

To  carry  on  our  metaphor  a  little  furtlier. 
The  machinery  of  this  mill  Vvill  not  go  of  itself. 
We    must    have   steam-power  or  water-power  at 


2 1 4     The  Fiuictions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

liand  to  drive  it;  this  consideration  affects  the 
\alue.  So  in  the  case  before  us,  we  want  to 
know,  not  only  whether  the  intellectual  apparatus 
is  g'ood,  but  what  force  there  is  to  work  it. 
In  human  beings  this  force  is  the  will.  We  may 
lind  an  admirable  intellect  which  either  lapses 
into  torpor,  from  the  absence  of  moving  power, 
or  consumes  itself  to  no  purpose  in  ill-regulated 
or  spasmodic  action.  Hence  it  is  important  for 
our  object  to  find  out  all  we  can  about  the 
volition  and  energy  of  the  minds  that  come  under 
review.  We  can  trace  these  qualities  in  some 
small  degree  in  combination  with  others,  but  the 
data  furnished  by  Examinations  for  judging  about 
them  are  confessedly  insufficient,  and  we  can 
only  give  our  conclusions  as  approximations.  We 
may  say  that  a  man  must  have  employed  certain 
faculties  with  diligence  and  resolution  for  a 
certain  time  to  learn  what  he  has  done,  but  we 
cannot  say  whether  this  industry  came  from  his 
own  strength  of  character  or  whether  it  was  due 
to  the  absence  of  temptation,  the  stimulus  of  an 
object  eagerly  coveted  and  a  contest  close  at 
hand  ;  or,  what  is  possible,  whether  the  apparatus 
in  his  case  was  really  worked  not  by  his  own 
energy  and  volition,  but  by  those  of  his  tutor 
transfused  into  him.      In  order  to  determine  this, 


The  Fwictions  of  Exmiiinations.    Selection.     2 1 5 

and  therefore  to  augur  confidently  how  he  will 
turn  out,  we  must  know  the  circumstances  of  his 
education.  In  actual  life  private  employers,  or 
head-masters  of  schools,  contrive  to  get  good 
information  on  these  points;  but  in  our  hypo- 
thetical case  we  are  supposed  to  be  investigating 
the  question,  "How  far  we  may  judge  of 
ability  by  Examinations  alone."  I  may  sa)', 
however,  in  passing,  that  if  papers  containing 
well-drawn  queries  as  to  the  energy  of  a  pupil, 
his  self-command  and  his  power  of  influ- 
encing others — all  which  qualities  peep  out  at 
School  and  College — were  sent  to  the  tutors  or 
masters  of  candidates,  information  would  be 
obtained  which  would  be  worth  having.  Practical 
persons  could  soon  tell  to  what  answers  they 
might  attach  credit. 

Our  hypothetical  case  may  not  answer  exactly 
to  anything  we  find  in  practice — the  suppositions 
which  we  make  to  enable  us  to  contemplate  one 
kind  of  action  by  itself  will,  in  most  kinds  of  science, 
in  Dynamics  for  instance  or  Political  Economy, 
lead  us  away  from  the  actual  existing  state  of 
things — but  we  find  many  Examinations,  in  which 
the  determination  of  the  relative  ability  of  the  com- 
petitors apart  from  that  of  their  knowledge,  is  dis- 
tinctly contemplated.    We  hear  it  said  of  particular 


2i6     TJie  Finictions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 

Examinations  that  they  do  or  do  not  ''bring  out 
the  cleverest  man,"  and  in  certain  Fellowship 
Examinations  the  avowed  object  is,  not  to  reward 
proficiency,  but  to  pick  out  the  man  who,  from 
his  mental  calibre,  is  most  likely  to  "do  credit  to 
the  College"  by  making  a  figure  in  life. 

And  now  we  come  to  the  question,  "What  do 
vv'e  mean  by  ability  ?"  and  here  we  seem  to  have 
opened  up  a  wide  question  of  mental  science, 
but  happily  our  range  is  limited  by  these  two 
considerations  : — first,  we  need  only  concern  our- 
selves v/ith  those  kinds  of  ability  which  the 
framers  of  Examinations  have  in  view;  and, 
secondly,  we  have  only  to  consider  the  qualities 
which  can  be  brought  under  review  by  an 
Examination. 

The  varieties  of  human  ability  which  Exami- 
nations are  employed  to  discover  and  to  measure 
gather  into  two  groups;  of  one  group  we  may 
take  the  man  of  science,  of  the  other  the  man  of 
action,  as  the  type.  The  strength  of  the  one  lies  in 
dealine  with  eeneral  ideas  or  abstractions,  while 
that  of  the  other  turns  not  only  on  his  grasp  of 
the  principles  he  has  to  apply,  but  also  on  his 
comprehension  of  the  nature  of  the  persons  on 
whom  or  with  whom  he  has  to  act.  We  need  not 
analyse   all   the   qualities   which   go  to  make  the 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.     2 1  7 


ideal  philosopher  or  statesman,  though  we  must 
understand  how  our  ignorance  about  the  rest 
invalidates  our  results.  We  need  only  treat  par- 
ticularly now  of  those  which  an  Examination  can 
be  made  to  disclose.  Many  qualities  which  go 
to  constitute  what  is  commonly  called  genius, 
act  irregularly,  and  cannot  be  called  into  opera- 
tion by  the  will  when  required,  and  so  cannot 
be  tested  with  certainty  in  an  Examination.  A 
man  can  no  more  display  genius  on  demand  than 
make  a  joke  when  told  to  do  so.  We  could 
not  call  on  persons  to  write  poems  in  an  Exami- 
nation room :  if  we  did,  we  should  get  a  quantity 
of  very  fair  verse,  but  the  man  who  wrote  the 
best  would  probably  be  as  far  as  any  one  from 
all  possibility  of  becoming  a  poet.  Originality, 
and  what  is  called  brilliancy,  will  usually  gleam 
out  now  and  then,  if  the  Examination  be  lone 
enough,  but  if  it  consist  only  of  a  paper  or  two 
it  may  happen  that  no  sparkle  shews  itself,  or, 
owing  to  some  happy  opportunity,  we  may  meet 
with  a  brilliant  display.  Here,  as  in  many  other 
cases,  we  see  the  superior  testing  power  of  an 
Examination  which  extends  over  a  considerable 
time. 

Neither  have  we   to   look  for  an  insight  into 
human  nature  or  for  the  wisdom  of  matured  iudo-- 


2i8      The  Fiinctions  of  Examiiiatiojis.     Selection. 

ment,  or  the  tolerant  and  appreciative  spirit  of 
the  man  who  has  gone  thoughtfully  through  life, 
wishing  to  find  "  a  soul  of  goodness  in  things 
evil."  These  are  qualities  which  do  not  belong 
to  the  time  of  life  of  those  who  come  under 
examination  :  and  even  if  they  did,  I  do  not  see 
how  we  could  detect  them  by  an  Examination. 
The  attempt  to  do  so  would  cause  them  to  be 
simulated,  and  would  thereby  perplex  the  Exa- 
miner, and  do  much  mischief  as  regards  education. 

What  I  propose  then  to  do  is  this  : — I  shall 
glance  over  those  mental  qualities  which  more 
or  less  come  under  our  cognisance  in  Examina- 
tions, and  which  go  to  the  making  of  some  of 
those  kinds  of  ability  which  Examinations  are 
framed  to  detect.  Then  we  must  cast  our  eye 
over  that  laro-e  area  which  Examinations  cannot 
explore,  and  we  shall  then  be  in  a  position  to 
judge  how  far  we  may  trust  the  verdict  of  an 
Examination.  We  shall  find  that  both  as  to 
ability  and  knowledge,  more  particularly  the  latter, 
Examinations  will  furnish  much  information  which 
cannot  be  got  in  any  other  way. 

Further,  the  gauging  of  ability  is  a  much  more 
delicate  matter  than  the  weighing  of  knowledge, 
and  it  can  only  be  entrusted  to  an  Examiner  of 
special  skill.      lie  must  be  able  to  recognise  the 


The  Ftuictions  of  Examinations.    Selection.     2 1 9 

qualities  which  are  disclosed  by  the  performances 
of  a  candidate,  and  he  should  follow  the  working's 
of  his  mind  as  if  he  were  part  of  himself  Such 
Examiners  cannot  be  readily  found,  though  there 
are  plenty  who  can  judge  of  acquirements  ;  this 
puts  a  practical  difficulty  in  the  way  of  the  selec- 
tion of  persons,  on  a  larg-e  scale,  on  the  score  of 
ability.  It  increases  this  difficulty  if  the  public 
insist  on  having  a  list  of  numerical  marks  as  a 
guarantee  of  fairness.  There  are  some  subjects 
in  which,  if  a  paper  be  marked  question  by  ques- 
tion, the  scores  of  the  different  candidates  may  ill 
represent  their  different  powers ;  but  such  a  plan 
gives  a  security  that  each  answer  has  been  care- 
fully considered  and  excludes  the  possibility  of 
favour.  Hence  to  deal  with  a  number  of  can- 
didates and  to  satisfy  the  public,  a  system  like 
that  of  the  Indian  Civil  Service  Examination, 
which  awards  its  distinctions  by  the  aggregate  of 
producible  attainments,  has  great  practical  conve- 
nience. As  a  criterion  of  ability  this  gives  but  a 
rough  approximation;  but  then  no  very  nice  dis- 
crimination is  required,  because  so  many  candi- 
dates are  selected  at  once,  that  the  action,  as  will 
be  shewn  hereafter,  is  not  very  different  from  that 
of  a  Pass  Examination  with  a  standard  of  about 
1200   marks.      Of  the  educational  effects   of   this 


2  20     The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Se lectio Ji. 

Examination  I  have  said  something,  and  shall 
have  to  say  more. 

The  kinds  of  ability  with  which  we  are  con- 
cerned are  made  up  partly  of  natural  gifts  in 
the  way  of  mental  powers,  and  partly  of  habits 
of  mind  which  have  been  formed,  either  by  the 
strong  will  and  self-watchfulness  of  the  indi- 
vidual, or  by  the  influences  brought  to  bear  on 
him  in  his  youth.  The  general  calibre  of  the 
mind  will  also  be  influenced  by  the  mental  diet 
and  exercise,  that  is  to  say,  by  the  supply  of 
valuable  matter  to  enrich  the  mind,  and  by  in- 
ducements to  exert  it  in  a  well-regulated  manner. 

The  formation  of  mental  habits,  as  has  been 
said  in  a  previous  chapter,  is  more  important 
than  the  imparting  of  knowledge,  and  in  estimat- 
ing ability  we  must  pay  regard  to  these  habits 
of  mind,  both  for  their  intrinsic  value,  and  be- 
cause, since  the  individual  must  in  a  great  degree 
have  formed  them  for  himself,  they  speak  well 
for  his  volitional  power  and  his  sound  judgment 
in  self-education. 

This  word  volitional  brings  us  to  the  consider- 
ation of  two  distinct  modes  of  action  of  the  men- 
tal powers,  which  are  called  by  I)r  Carpenter 
in  his  excellent  work  on  Mental  Physiology, 
volitional  and    automatic.      For  a  full  account  of 


The  Fzmctions  of  Examinations.    Selection.     2  2  i 

the  nature  of  these  modes  of  action,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  chapters  on  Attention,  Memory, 
Will,  and  Imagination  in  that  work.  The  mean- 
ing of  the  words  may  be  made  sufficiently  plain 
for  the  understanding  of  what  follows  by  a  simple 
illustration. 

We  will  take  the  case  of  attention,  which  is 
explained  to  be  a  condition  of  active  recipiency  of 
the  mind,  as  opposed  to  that  of  passive  recipiency 
in  which  it  receives  impressions  without  giving 
heed  to  them.  A  person  walking  through  a  street 
is  sufficiently  aware  of  the  objects  which  come  in 
his  way  to  prevent  his  running  against  them,  but 
he  may  not  pay  any  attention  to  them  at  all.  If 
something  in  a  shop-window  strikes  him  and  he 
notes  it  as  he  passes,  this  is  autoinatic  action  of 
the  attention;  if  the  object  recall  circumstances 
connected  with  some  past  event,  we  have  auto- 
matic action  of  the  memory.  What  is  thus  re- 
membered may  lead  to  ^  further  train  of  recollec- 
tion. This  action  is  still  automatic.  But  if  the 
person  wish  to  call  at  a  house  with  a  certain 
number,  his  attention  is  volitionally  directed  to 
the  numbers  on  the  houses,  and  if  he  recall  to 
n.iind  the  message  that  he  meant  to  deliver,  this 
is  a  volitional  exercise  of  memory.  So  when  a 
passage  in  a  poem  brings  a  vivid  picture  before 


222     The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

the  mind's  eye,  this  action  of  imagination  is  auto- 
matic, but  when  by  clwelHng  on  the  part  assigned 
to  a  character  in  a  play  of  Shakespeare  we  try  to 
form  a  conception  of  the  sort  of  mind  or  person 
which  Shakespeare  had  in  view;  or  when  from  the 
traces  on  certain  planes  we  set  ourselves  to  con- 
ceive the  form  of  a  geometrical  surface  in  space, 
this  is  an  exercise  of  volitional  imagination. 

The  faculty  which  above  all  others  claims  our 
attention  is  Memory.  All  our  knowledge,  all  that 
is  got  from  books,  and  much  that  is  learned  from 
life,  is  trusted  to  her  for  safe  keeping.  There  is 
no  Examination  in  which  her  fidelity  is  not  tried, 
and  there  are  many  which  try  nothing  else, — 
except,  of  course,  the  power  of  expression.  Me- 
mory, pure  and  simple,  as  philosophers  tell  us, 
is  the  reproduction  of  some  past  state  of  mind, 
and  the  recognition  of  the  reproduced  state  as 
an  old  acquaintance  :  but  we  meet  with  it  most 
often  in  combination  with  other  qualities,  and 
some  combinations  occur  so  commonly,  and  are 
so  constant  in  their  characteristics,  that  they  may 
be  treated  of  as  being  faculties  of  themselves.  I 
shall  mention  some  kinds  with  which  we  have  to 
do:  (i)  what  I  will  call  the  Portative  Memory, 
which  simply  conveys  matter,  and  whose  onl)- 
aim,    lik(;    that    of    a    carrier,    is    to    deliver    the 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection.    223 

parcel  as  it  was  received  :  (2)  the  Anal)tical 
Memory,  which  is  exercised  when  the  mind  fur- 
nishes a  view  of  its  own,  and  thereby  holds 
together  a  set  of  impressions  selected  out  of  a 
mass.  Thus  a  barrister  strings  together  the  ma- 
terial facts  of  his  case,  and  a  lecturer  those  of  his 
science,  by  regarding  their  bearing  on  what  he 
wants  to  establish:  (3)  the  Assimilative  Memory, 
which  absorbs  the  matter  into  the  system,  so  that 
the  knowledge  assimilated  becomes  part  of  the 
person's  own  self,  like  that  of  his  name,  or  of  a 
familiar  language.  Further,  I  may  name  a  va- 
riety less  important  as  regards  Examination — 
the  Index  Memory,  that  which  does  not  recol- 
lect the  matter  itself,  but  only  where  to  find  it ; 
an  instance  as  seen  in  the  lawyer,  who  does  not 
pretend  to  carry  the  law  on  every  point  in  his 
head,  but  who  can  readily  refer  to  the  case  in 
which  it  is  laid  down. 

Memory,  in  the  words  of  Dr  Carpenter,  "  grows 
to"  the  circumstances  in  wliich  she  finds  herself 
in  a  very  remarkable  way  ;  this  case  of  the  lawyer 
is  one  illustration.  People  develop  the  kind  of 
memory  they  want;  the  idle  school-bo)'  gets  the 
power  of  learning  a  short  lesson  in  a  few  minutes, 
which  he  forgets  as  soon  as  it  is  said;  the  savant 
readily   acquires   languages  or  sciences,  but  does 


2  24     The  Functions  of  Exa7ninations.    Scicciion. 

not  always  recollect  a  commission  in  the  matters  of 
daily  life;  while  a  servant,  who  "has  a  head,"  but 
who  cannot  write  down  a  memorandum,  will  re- 
collect the  directions  given  him  on  a  number  of 
points. 

Memory  may  tell  us  of  the  existence  of  a 
power  beyond  herself,  for  remembrance  implies 
foregone  attention,  and  if  this  attention  have  been 
volitionally  exercised,  as  it  is  in  application  to 
study,  memory  is  an  evidence  of  the  possession 
of  some  power  of  will.  The  power  of  attention 
is  sometimes  very  defective,  and  the  want  of  it  is 
a  presumptive  sign  of  feeble  intelligence  or  small 
brain  power.  It  is  this  deficiency  far  more  than 
idleness,  or  mere  backwardness  from  want  of 
teaching,  that  causes  failures  in  pass  Examina- 
tions. Most  commonly  the  weakness  is  only  a 
want  of  volitional  attention  ;  the  power  of  atten- 
tion exists,  but  acts  automatically;  it  is  drawn  off 
by  any  incident  or  any  suggested  idea,  and  the 
indivi(,lual  has  no  power  of  applying  his  mind. 
He  is,  to  use  Dr  Carpenter's  expression,  ''bird- 
witted." 

In  speaking  of  the  different  varieties  of  me- 
mory it  must  be  understood  that  I  distinguish 
them  according  to  the  functions  that  we  find  per- 
formed,   and    that    I    am    not    dealing    with    the 


The  Finictio7is  of  Examinations.     Selection. 


^■^:) 


matter  psychologically.  These  functions  are  dis- 
played in  Examinations,  and  are  well  marked  and 
important. 

The  Portative  Memory  is  shewn  in  the  repro- 
duction of  what  has  been  learnt,  and  from  a 
display  of  it  we  see  that  the  pupil  has  been  able 
to  set  himself  to  work  for  a  certain  time  with  con- 
siderable activity.  This  shews  some  power  of 
volitional  attention,  and  in  the  Examinations  of 
boys,  and  of  young-  men  who  only  aim  at  "  quali- 
fying," some  regard  must  be  paid  to  it,  because  it 
is  nearly  the  only  mental  quality  which  we  can 
look  for.  Subjects  which  turn  on  a  reproduction  of 
the  contents  of  books,  such  as  Literature  and  the 
outlines  of  History  and  Geography,  as  learned 
from  Manuals,  as  well  as  the  rudiments  of  Natural 
Science,  which  often  consist  very  largely  of  nomen- 
clature, are,  nine  parts  out  of  ten,  mere  exercises  of 
Portative  Memory.  If  a  youth  be  well  taught,  he 
may  get,  even  from  such  rudiments,  some  general 
views  which  will  remain  by  him  ;  but  there  are  in 
most  "pass"  papers  enough  questions,  which  only 
require  this  kind  of  memory,  to  enable  a  candidate 
to  scrape  through  ;  and  those  who  are  not  am- 
bitious, beingf  aware  of  this,  will  do  nothino-  more 
than  make  sure  of  such  questions.  They  will 
train   their  memory  to   carry  a  small   amount  of 

L.  15 


2  26      The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

matter  for  the  necessary  time,  whatever  that  may 
be.  For  instance,  the  translation  of  a  Greek 
book  must  be  held  in  the  head  for  weeks  and 
months,  because  only  a  little  can  be  learned  every 
day,  while  dates  and  facts  and  brief  outlines  are 
"got  up"  within  the  last  twenty-four  hours.  Hence 
Vv^e  may  often  flatter  ourselves  that  we  are  ex- 
amining students  in  all  those  branches  of  know- 
ledge "without  which  no  gentleman's  education  is 
complete,"  but  what  we  really  test  is  only  this 
carrying pozucr  under  various  shapes:  the  matter 
that  is  carried  soon  disappears. 

I  am  now  concerned  with  the  higher  Exami- 
nations, and  refer  to  the  lower  ones  only  as  illus- 
trations; we  may  often  learn  from  them  some- 
thing that  shews  us  clearly  some  general  mode  in 
which  Examinations  act.  There  are  but  a  few 
subjects  in  which  this  Portative  Memory  does  not 
come  into  play  necessarily  to  a  great  extent,  and 
very  often  to  a  greater  degree  than  it  is  supposed 
to  do  or  should  do.  The  Examiner  assigns  no 
credit  to  it  in  Competitive  Examinations,  but,  in- 
directly, it  must  bring  its  possessor  an  ample  re- 
turn. Its  effect  is  at  its  minimum  in  those  parts 
of  Mathematics  which  consist  largely  of  examples, 
in  composition  in  foreign  languages,  and  in  trans- 
lation where  the  books  are  not  specified.      Hence 


The  Ftmctions  of  Exanimations.    Selection.     227 

the  value  of  these  subjects  to  the  Examiner;  in 
them  he  sees  exercised  an  acquired  power  as  well 
as  knowledg-e,  and  he  need  not  be  on  the  watch 
to  detect  what  is  merely  remembered  and  not 
understood,  as  he  is  when  concerned  with  the 
subjects  which  impart  only  information.  A  pupil 
may  be  made  to  learn  facts,  summaries,  and 
general  reflections,  by  the  mere  exercise  of  the 
Portative  Memory.  This  is  the  faculty  which 
renders  what  is  called  "cram"  possible;  indeed, 
the  most  intelligible  meaning  of  this  term  is,  that 
it  is  the  process  by  which  memory  is  made  to 
simulate  the  fruit  of  other  mental  functions ;  the 
sound  teacher  tries  to  prevent  the  pupil  from 
saving  himself  thinking  by  availing  himself  of  his 
memory,  and  most  tutors  will  rather  teach  a 
pupil  than  "cram"  him;  but  when  time  is  limited 
and  success  all-important,  there  is  no  resource  but 
to  trust  to  memory.  Certain  subjects  and  classes 
of  questions  throw  students  upon  their  memories, 
and  drive  tutors  to  provide  formulated  answers, 
more  than  others,  and  this  should  be  carefully 
borne  in  mind  in  framing  Examinations. 

Mr  Todhunter'  points  out  the  m.ischief  in  this 
respect  of  demonstrations  requiring  proofs  that  are 
artificial,  that  is,  which  would  not  be  suggested  by 

^   Conflict  of  Studies.     Macniillan  and  Co.      1873. 

15  —  2 


2  28     The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

the  oreneral  views  and  methods  belono-inof  to  the 
subject ;  and  questions  which  call  on  very  young 
men  for  the  comparison  of  philosophical  views, 
or  for  the  judgment  of  ripe  manhood — questions 
which  belong  rather  to  the  Examiner's  own  time 
of  life  than  that  of  the  candidates — have  this  evil 
tendency.  The  Bishop  of  Salisbury  remarks 
wisely,  in  his  evidence  to  the  Oxford  commission, 
on  the  mischief  which  may  arise  from  dealing  with 
youth  as  if  they  had  passed  through  years  of 
thought.  One  man  in  a  hundred  may  be  set 
thinking,  the  rest  urge  their  tutors  to  give  them 
their  thoughts  ready  for  production.  This  process 
is  quite  as  injurious  to  the  tutor  himself  as  it  is  to 
the  pupil,  and  the  effect  on  the  tutor  should  be 
at  least  equally  considered.  It  is  a  sad  thing  to 
give  able  young  teachers  low  views  of  learning ; 
and  one  who  has  long  done  the  work  of  "cram- 
mino-"  comes  to  have  no  more  belief  in  the  edu- 

o 

cation  got  from  books,  especially  with  a  view  to 
Examinations,  than  the  old  statesman  had  in  the 
truth  of  history. 

Thus,  in  testing  ability,  an  Examiner  aims  at 
reducing  the  effect  of  this  kind  of  memory.  In 
Mathematics,  for  instance,  he  would  avoid  asking 
lor  long  burdensome  demonstrations,  and  If  for 
(xlucational  purposes  he  did   ask  them, — and  we 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.     229 

shall  see  that  there  is  an  evil  in  omittinor  such 
altogether, — he  would  attach  little  credit  to  them 
in  selecting  his  candidates.  This,  it  is  true,  can 
only  be  fairly  done  where  the  candidates  have  not 
been  led  to  expect  consideration  for  such  answers. 
But  there  is  a  deeper  ground  for  mistrusting  a 
glib  memory  than  that  it  gives  a  facility  in  "cram- 
ming". An  experienced  Examiner  can  often  de- 
tect "  cram,"  and  will  not  be  far  misled  in  dis- 
criminating between  what  is  the  pupil's  own  and 
what  is  his  tutor's.  "  Cram"  betrays  itself  in 
abrupt  changes  of  style,  and  if  several  candidates 
have  been,  prepared  by  one  teacher,  the  Examiner 
may  have  his  eyes  opened  by  finding  that  the 
same  striking  phrase  or  illustration  has  apparently 
occurred  to  many  candidates  at  the  same  moment. 
But  the  ready  mechanical  memory  of  a  youth, 
besides  enabling  him  to  mislead  unpractised  Ex- 
aminers, makes  him  deceive  himself.  Teachers  find 
that  a  very  ready  memory  is  a  bad  educator ;  it 
stunts  the  growth  of  other  mental  powers  by 
doing  their  work  for  them.  A  youth  who  can  re- 
collect without  trouble,  will,  as  it  were,  mask  the 
difficulty  in  his  classical  author  or  his  mathematics, 
by  learning  by  rote  what  stands  in  his  translation 
or  text-book,  and  march  forward  without  more 
ado.     Thus  a  quick  memory  involves  a  tempta- 


230     The  Functions  of  Exa7ninations.     Selection. 

tion  which  may  enervate  its  possessor  by  suffer- 
ing him  to  evade  a  difficulty  instead  of  bracing 
himself  to  encounter  it  in  front. 

An  Examiner  may  detect  this  superficial  sharp- 
ness by  various  symptoms.  The  man  of  mere 
memory  keeps  close  to  the  words  of  his  text-book, 
he  shews  what  may  be  called  the  timidity  of  im- 
perfect comprehension,  like  that  theological  can- 
didate who  dared  not  swerve  a  letter  from  the 
formularies  of  the  Church,  lest  he  should  fall  into 
a  terrible  heresy.  Occasionally  too  there  will  be 
a  slip  in  some  word  which  shews  that  the  student 
has  taken  down  notes  orally,  and  not  understood 
them,  or  he  translates  from  a  reading  not  printed 
in  the  paper,  and  generally,  he  confines  himself 
to  those  questions  which  can  be  answered  by 
memory,  or  he  makes  a  comparatively  poor  show 
in  the  others  if  he  ventures  on  them. 

The  Analytical  Memory  differs  from  that  just 
spoken  of  in  this  respect :  whereas  the  Portative 
Memory  supplies  the  connexion  or  succession  of 
notions,  by  the  help  of  a  jingle  of  words  on  the  ear, 
or  by  the  position  of  paragraphs,  or  by  some  such 
aid  which  docs  not  require  any  mental  action,  the 
Analytical  Memory  binds  together  the  materials  by 
weaving  them  into  a  structure,  of  which  the  mind 
has  supplied  the  conception,  or  furnished  some  con- 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.     2  3 1 

necting  view  which  holds  together  the  matter  hke 
beads  on  a  string.  For  this  there  is  need  of 
imagination  to  conceive  the  view,  and  comparison 
to  determine  the  relative  importance  of  the  items 
and  subordinate  some  of  them  to  others.  In  Ex- 
aminations in  ''set  subjects"  this  is  one  of  the 
faculties  which  we  want  to  see  exercised.  It 
is  that  by  which  a  lawyer  "gets  up"  his  case,  or 
a  lecturer  his  dissertation ;  he  has  supplied  the 
view  which  enables  him  to  comprehend  the  facts 
or  the  phenomena  in  one  glance,  and  thus  to  print 
the  impression  on  his  mind.  The  memory  in  this 
case  must  be  thoroughly  under  command,  it  obeys 
the  slightest  intimation  of  the  will  as  to  what  it 
should  record,  and  it  is  in  consequence  an  indica- 
tion of  a  disciplined  and  vigorous  mind. 

A  schoolboy  carries  into  an  Examination  the 
order  of  the  kings  of  England,  the  dates  of  their 
accession,  and  the  principal  events  of  each  reign, 
purely  by  help  of  the  Portative  Memory,  as  he 
would  learn  the  parts  of  a  Latin  verb.  When  a 
student  of  History  writes  "a  brief  account  of  the 
foreign  policy  of  England  under  Oliver  Cromwell" 
he  is  exercising  his  Analytical  Memory;  but  when 
a  portion  of  History  has  become  assimilated  in 
his  mind,  he  can  sit  down  and  sketch  an  outline  of 
it  straight  off,  only  requiring  to  refer  to  authorities 


232     The  Functions  of  Examinations,    Selection. 

for  names,  dates,  and  details,  which,  if  his  Index 
Memory  be  also  cultivated,  he  can  put  his  finger 
on  in  a  moment.  In  the  same  way  a  student  who 
has  thoroughly  mastered  Mechanics  could  write 
out  a  treatise  on  Elementary  Dynamics  without 
leaving  his  place  in  the  Examination  room.  He 
would  not  have  to  "look  over"  this  subject  for 
Examination. 

There  are  fatal  objections  to  the  introduction 
of  "set  subjects"  into  those  competitive  Examina- 
tions which  are  intended  to  o^ive  no  advantasfe 
to  particular  places  of  teaching.  It  would  inter- 
fere with  school-work  if  particular  subjects  were 
prescribed.  It  is  the  great  difficulty  of  the  Indian 
Civil  Service  Examination,  which  is  meant  to 
afford  quite  an  open  field,  that  the  English 
History  and  Literature  and  the  rudiments  of  cer- 
tain sciences  act  in  the  same  way  as  set  subjects ; 
they  represent  acquaintance  with  manuals.  The 
consequence  is,  that  a  particular  kind  of  teaching 
is  rendered  advantageous;  success  depends  much 
on  the  judicious  selection  of  the  subjects,  and  the 
teacher,  rather  than  the  pupil,  is  in  fact  the  person 
under  Examination. 

In  order  to  defeat  "cramming,"  it  has  been 
proposed  that  all  competitive  Examinations  should 
turn    entirely  on    the  exercise  of  powers  arising 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.     233 

from  what  has  been  stored  by  the  Assunllative 
Memory;  for  instance,  on  the  writing  or  translating 
of  foreign  languages,  or  on  the  apphcation  of 
those  sciences  which  admit  of  the  principles 
being  applied  to  examples.  But  this  would  in- 
troduce an  educational  evil ;  a  generation  would 
arise  destitute  of  common  information  ;  they  would 
cultivate  these  powers  and  neglect  everything 
else,  so  that  they  would  have  but  a  scanty  store 
of  mental  food  to  nourish  their  minds  in  the 
busy  time  of  life  when  they  cannot  spare  the 
time  or  energy  for  taking  up  a  study.  The 
best  approximation  to  a  solution  of  this  di- 
lemma will  be  found  in  making  use  of  educational 
Examinations,  not  only  those  at  the  Universities, 
but  also  those  carried  on  in  the  Schools  and  at 
various  Local  Centres  and  others  that  may  be 
devised,  as  a  means  of  making  a  first  selection, 
to  act  in  fact  as  siftei's.  In  preparing  for  these, 
the  student,  being  under  authority,  could  be  taught 
what  was  best  for  him.  He  might  be  examined 
in  the  information  he  had  gained  a  little  at  a  time 
through  a  long  period — that  so  got  lasts  longest, 
and  the  capabilities  he  might  be  acquiring  could 
be  tested  at  the  same  time.  Those  who  did  well 
in  these  sifting  Examinations,  and  those  only, 
should    be    admitted    to    a    further    competitive 


2  34      The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

Examination  in  a  few  of  those  subjects  which 
endow  the  learner  with  a  power  of  doing  some- 
thing, and  are  therefore  suitable  for  our  purpose. 
I  mention  this  briefly  now,  as  being  one  reason 
for  considering  rather  particularly  how  far  an 
Examination  comprising  "  set  subjects  "  may  give 
grounds  for  judging  of  the  ability  of  candidates. 
Such  subjects  must  enter  into  School  Examina- 
tions, and  we  want  to  find  how  far  we  may  trust 
such  Examinations  for  making  a  rough  selection. 
But  apart  from  consideration  of  Government 
competitions,  it  is  desirable  to  see  how  the  intro- 
duction of  specified  books  into  an  Examination 
affects  its  efficiency  as  a  means  of  discovering  the 
ablest  men. 

The  case  is  best  understood  by  taking  an  in- 
stance. Let  us  suppose  that  the  Trilogy  of  ^s- 
chylus  is  the  subject  of  study  and  forms  part 
of  an  Examination.  This  may  be  made  the 
nucleus  of  a  vast  amount  of  illustrative  matter. 
It  will  bring  under  consideration  the  ethics  and 
mythology  of  the  time,  the  nature  of  dramatic 
poetry  and  its  modern  development,  as  well  as 
much  that  is  suggested  by  the  form  and  matter  of 
the  plays  themselves.  There  is  a  vast  amount 
of  matter  that  may  be  made  to  illustrate  the 
subject.     A  work  like  this   treated   exhaustively, 


The  Functions  of  Exaininations.    Selection.     235 

like  the  model  book  of  Jacotot\  affords  us  a 
glimpse  of  what  that  writer  was  driving  at  when 
he  said,  "  Tout  est  dans  totity  The  man  who  is 
possessed  by  a  great  subject  finds  everywhere 
something  that  he  can  bring  to  bear  on  it. 
Illustrative  matter  clusters  round  the  dominant 
idea,  like  straws  round  a  floating  mass.  Here 
we  have  volitional  imagination  warmed  to  catch 
impressions  to  which  the  duller  mind  is  dead, 
and  this  faculty  of  seizing  on  and  appropriating, 
in  all  that  comes  under  view,  those  elements 
which  may  be  made  to  bear  on  what  we  are 
about,  is  a  marked  concomitant  of  ability. 

Some  no  doubt  will  speak  of  such  a  given 
book  as  a  "cram"  subject,  by  which  they  mean 
that  he  who  does  best  in  it,  owes  his  success, 
not  to  assimilated  knowledge  of  the  language, 
but  to  a  power  "  of  getting  up."  Learners  have 
a  keen  perception  of  the  difference  of  these  pro- 
cesses, and  are  apt  to  think  that  this  "getting 
up"  is  a  mere  matter  of  time  and  toil.  This  is 
not  so.  The  power  of  so  mastering  a  mass  of  mat- 
ter as  to  reproduce  it  with  all  its  delicacy  of  detail 
shews  a  distinct  quality  of  considerable  value. 
The   man  who   dashes    off  a  spirited  and  fairly 

^  See  Essays  on  Educational  Reformers,  by  R.  II.  Quick.     Longmans 
Green  and  Co.     An  excellent  book. 


236     The  Functions  of  Examiiiations.    Scledioji. 

correct  translation,  and  writes  showy  composition 
with  much  ease,  may  be  utterly  unable  to  deal 
with  a  quantity  of  matter  in  the  thorough  way 
that  I  have  in  view.  One  man  has  the  power 
of  grasping  a  subject  in  its  entirety,  he  has  a 
lar^e  mental  held  of  view.  The  other  sees  but 
a  bit  at  a  time.  Further,  to  attain  high  ex- 
cellence in  these  set  subjects  a  person  must  have 
the  power  of  duly  subordinating  details  so  as 
to  leave  his  main  lines  strongly  marked,  and 
a  faculty  of  finding  the  idea  which  shall  put  form 
and  order  into  the  mass,  as  the  statuary  sees  the 
figure  in  the  marble  block. 

So  far  as  the  ideal  pupil  is  concerned,  there 
is  here  no  "cram"  at  all  in  a  derogatory  sense;  he 
may  have  to  carry  some  dates  and  names  and 
details  into  the  Examination;  they  are  indeed 
retained  by  the  Portative  Memory  for  the  time,  and 
may  therefore  be  called  "cram,"  but  these  go  for 
little  in  the  value  of  his  performance.  These 
little  matters  have  merely  passed  through  his 
hands  as  it  were,  but  a  great  deal  of  wisdom 
has  been  stored  and  accumulated,  and  forms  part 
of  his  mental  capital  for  evermore.  What  is 
valuable  has  been  in  fact  assimilated.  But  the 
disparagement  of  such  subjects  is  not  hard  to 
account  for.      Some  of  those  who  disparage  them 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.     237 

are  quite  right  in  feeling-  that  if  t/iey  got  the 
subject  up  it  would  be  "cram",  and  this  leads 
us  to  mark  the  specific  action  of  such  a  paper. 
Excellence  shews  much  ability,  mediocrity  very 
little,  while  a  display  of  mere  scraps  of  informa- 
tion has  no  value  for  our  purpose,  and  in  se- 
lecting candidates  on  the  ground  of  ability  it 
ought  not  to  weigh  against  the  display  of  any 
power.  Upon  passing  in  order  down  the  list  of 
those  who  might  have  attempted  our  supposed 
paper,  a  change  would  be  found  not  only  in  the 
degj'-ee,  but  in  the  kind  of  merit.  This  is  not 
sufficiently  taken  account  of  in  any  received  s}s- 
tem  of  marking;  some  convenient  formula  is 
wanted  for  giving  greater  weight  to  excellence. 
It  will  roughly  answer  to  give  marks  in  the 
ordinary  way  and  then  square  them-^.  If  what 
is  produced  has  not  to  be  weighed  against  other 
kinds  of  knowledge,  there  is  no  need  of  numerical 
marking  except  as  a  record  of  impression,  and 
the  case  is  simplified.  The  question  of  different 
modes  of  marking  will  be  treated  of  when  we 
come  to  the  mechanism  of  Examinations. 

^  For  instance,  20  marks  might  be  given  to  a  paper:  then  full  marks 
would,  after  squaring,  be  set  down  as  400  and  half  marks  only  as  100.  'Ihis 
would  fairly  represent  the  ratio  of  ability.  If  we  want  to  reward  know- 
ledge and  diligence  the  case  is  different.  Fractional  marks  might  be 
avoided  by  using  one  place  of  decimals. 


•o 


S     The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 


Given  books  may,  then,  be  made  effective  for 
the  purpose  of  discrimination,  if  we  are  content 
with  selecting  a  few  candidates  out  of  many,  and 
if,  therefore,  we  need  only  take  account  of  high 
excellence.  If  all  the  candidates  have  had  the 
same  sort  of  teaching  within  their  reach,  so  that 
the  difference  between  them  is  not  likely  to  result 
from  difference  of  opportunities,  one  source  of 
complexity  is  removed.  The  number  of  such 
subjects  in  an  Examination  should  be  very  limited, 
or  the  student  will  be  distracted,  which  is  in- 
jurious in  an  educational  point  of  view,  and 
the  Examiner  will  survey  his  candidates  when 
they  have  their  minds  burdened  and  jaded  by  a 
heavy  load  on  their  memory,  whereas  he  wants  to 
see  them  at  their  best  and  freshest.  Students  with 
all  their  possessions  carried  in  their  memories  shew 
the  same  uneasiness  that  a  man  does  with  great 
treasures  about  his  person.  They  are  in  constant 
fear  of  letting  something  drop.  Besides,  if  more 
than  two  or  three  given  subjects  be  carried  at  the 
same  time  into  an  Examination,  ability  may  be 
overlaid  by  a  many-sided  mediocrity,  especially  if 
the  common  way  of  taking  an  aggregate  of  marks 
be  retained.  But  a  small  number  of  such  subjects, 
not  o\er  marked,  will  assist  in  bringing  out  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  ability.      Thus  a  School  Examina- 


\ 

TJic  Functio7is  of  Examinations.    Selection.    ^239 

tion,  into  which  set  subjects  must  necessarily 
enter,  may  be  made  to  give  trustworthy  results 
with  regard  to  a  few  of  the  ablest  boys  so  far 
as  their  ability  is  actually  effective  at  the  time. 
There  will  be  many  who  do  not  ripen  till  they  have 
left  school,  and  these  of  course  are  passed  over  in 
any  system  of  competition  among  youths.  All 
such  systems  put  a  premium  on  early  produce,  of 
the  effects  of  which   I  shall  speak  hereafter. 

The  kind  of  knowledge,  however,  which  fur- 
nishes the  proper  field  for  competitive  Exa- 
mination is  beyond  doubt  that  which  has  been 
assimilated  by  a  slow  process,  and  becomes  a 
permanent  possession.  This  possession  carries 
with  it  a  skill  or  power  which  can  be  put  in 
practice  whenever  it  is  called  for.  When  a 
person  is  addressed  in  a  foreign  language  with 
which  he  is  acquainted,  the  words  for  reply  come 
to  him  as  easily  as  the  proper  motions  do  to  a 
swimmer  when  he  jumps  into  the  water.  But 
besides  languages  and  science,  the  knowledge  of 
facts  may  be  assimilated,  if  it  have  been  long  enough 
present  to  the  mind  :  the  outlines  of  history,  the 
general  features  of  a  map,  and  the  fundamental 
facts  and  laws  of  a  science  often  become  so  in- 
timately associated  with  the  man's  nature,  that  he 
can  hardly  imagine  that  he  can  forget  them  ;  but 


240     The  Fitnctions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 

i  t  is  not  every  one  who  has  this  power  of  assimila- 
tion in  any  considerable  degree.  It  seems  to  be 
connected  with  a  habit  of  unconsciously  reviewing 
the  stock  of  ideas,  and  is  found  mostly  in  persons 
of  a  certain  degree  of  mental  power  and  activity. 

Many  persons  will  forget  in  no  very  long  time 
every  word  of  a  language  which  they  have  once 
spoken  fluently,  or  of  a  matter  with  which  they 
have  been  thoroughly  conversant.  Hence  a  good 
Assimilative  Memory  indicates  vigour  of  brain, 
and  also  a  power  of  steady  application,  for  it 
does  not  yield  its  harvest  in  the  way  of  a  new 
practical  capacity  without  long-continued  culture. 
"  Lightly  come,  lightly  go,"  holds  of  learning  as  of 
other  things,  and  what  is  rapidly  learnt  is  rapidly 
lost,  unless  it  be  impressed  on  the  mind  in  some 
unusually  vivid  way.  A  man  cannot  by  working 
eight  hours  a  day  at  Greek  or  Algebra  get 
twice  as  much  facility  in  dealing  with  them  as  if 
he  worked  four  hours.  Assimilation  cannot  be 
hurried;  the  mind  will  only  absorb  at  a  certain  rate. 
The  amount  of  a  book  which  can  be  "got  up"  for 
production  is  much  more  nearly  proportional  to 
the  time  spent  on  it ;  but  such  knowledge  soon 
passes  away,  because  it  is  not  taken  into  the  sys- 
tem. Dr  Carpenter  tells  a  story  of  an  actor,  who. 
having  once  had  to  learn  a  part  in  a  liurry,  for- 


The  Functions  of  Exa7ninaiio?is.    Selection.    241 

got  it  altogether  soon  after  he  had  played  it,  and 
had  to  learn  it  afresh  afterwards  whenever  he  had 
to  act  it,  although  the  parts  which  he  had  studied 
at  leisure  remained  always  by  him  ready  to  be 
performed  when  wanted.  These  he  had  assimi- 
lated, the  other  he  only  carried.  Dr  Carpenter 
explains  the  necessity  of  time  for  the  forming  of 
permanent  impressions  on  the  brain,  a  point  which 
is  also  spoken  of  by  Dr  Abercrombie^  and  Sir 
Henry  Holland-. 

I  must  here  recur  to  the  distinction  I  have  so 
often  dwelt  upon,  between  the  studies  which  yield 
an  "  Art,"  or  capacity  of  applying  knowledge, 
and  those  which  terminate  in  the  information 
acquired.  I  shall  mention  some  of  the  advan- 
tages possessed  by  the  former  class  of  acquire- 
ments considered  as  furnishing  an  arena  for  the 
exhibition  of  intellectual  strength.  One  of  these 
causes  I  have  just  mentioned  ;  it  is  that  a  capacity 
cannot  be  suddenly  increased  for  the  occasion — in 
other  words,  cannot  be  "crammed" — and  that 
knowledge  can.  A  man's  condition  in  respect  of 
a  capacity  is  more  permanent  than  it  is  in  respect 
of  the  knowledge  of  facts  or  of  books,  and  the 
verdict  of  the  Examiner  which  is  based  on  it  will 

^  On  the  InidUctual  Pcavcrs. 

'  Chapter  on  Mental  Physiology. 

L.  16 


242    The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 

therefore  hold  good  for  some  time:  whereas  a 
youth  may  succeed  or  fail  in  a  competition  owing" 
to  the  state  of  his  knowledge  of  a  manual  of 
history,  the  contents  of  which  he  might  acquire 
perfectly,  or  forget  utterly  in  a  fortnight. 

Again,  since  it  takes  time  and  steady  work  to 
acquire  an  "Art"  the  possession  of  it  is  a  proof 
of  industry  and  perseverance.  We  conclude,  that 
the  man  can  do  good  work,  and,  what  is  more, 
that  he  can  go  on  working  at  the  same  thing 
till  he  has  thoroughly  mastered  it.  This  is  im- 
portant, for  there  are  people  whose  minds  have 
much  activity  but  little  power,  and  these  begin 
many  things,  but  are  stopped  when  the  drudgery 
and  difficulties  appear.  We  get  a  glimpse  here 
of  moral  strength,  a  quality  of  high  value,  and  so 
hard  to  ascertain  directly  by  examinations  that 
we  must  treasure  up  every  hint  they  afford. 
A  parent  who  intends  his  son  for  active  life  some- 
times values  a  University  Honour  more  for  the 
sustained  energy  and  self-denial  it  takes  to  obtain 
it,  than  for  anything  else. 

Knowledge  that  is  assimilated  has  also  this 
advantage,  that  at  the  time  of  producing  it  the 
mind  is  not  crushed  by  having  to  carry  a  load  of 
matter,  as  in  the  case  of  the  "got-up"  subjects 
mentioned  a  few  pages  back:  a  man  has  his  Latin 


1 


The  Fiuictio7ts  of  Examinations.    Selection.    243 

and  Greek,  for  instance,  always  by  him  ;  hence 
when  he  sits  down  to  an  Examination  in  those 
languages  he  has  energy  and  vivacity  to  spare, 
and  the  Examiner  sees  him  in  his  happiest  con- 
dition, which  it  is  his  object  always  to  do.  Another 
valuable  peculiarity  for  the  Examiner  of  the  class 
of  subjects  which  result  in  a  capacity  is  this — for 
most  persons  there  is  a  terminal  excellence  as  re- 
gards this  capacity  which  is  approached  as  a 
limit.  I'or  each  individual  a  certain  saturation 
■point  may  be  marked  in  these  studies,  and  by  this 
we  may  fairly  register  certain  kinds  of  ability. 
A  schoolboy  who  is  learning  Greek,  rises  rapidly 
to  a  certain  point,  he  then  advances  slowl);,  and 
at  last  stops.  I  was  once  told  by  a  student 
who  had  been  long  occupied  with  classics,  that 
latterly  he  had  learned  fresh  words  and  books, 
but  had  not  increased  his  hold  of  the  lano-uacre  at 
all.  In  the  same  way,  in  sports,  such  as  shooting, 
or  playing  cricket,  there  seems  to  be  a  limit  of  the 
skill  which  each  individual  can  attain  by  practice. 
In  jNIathematics  also  the  learner  arrives  at  such 
a  limit  of  skill  in  solving  problems  or  in  per- 
forming analytical  operations.  But  in  Mathe- 
matics as  learnt  for  production  in  an  Exanii- 
nation  there  is  also  in  most  branches  a  certain 
amount  of  what  is  called  "  bookwork,"  and  this  is 

16 — 2 


244    ^'^^^  Functions  of  Examinations.   Selection. 

of  the  character  o{  knowledge ;  it  can  therefore  be 
extended  hi  quantity  by  the  outlay  of  more  pains 
and  time  ;   but  here  also  there  will  be  a  limit,  for 
this  "bookwork"  must  be  understood  in  order  to 
be  recollected,  and  the  student  is   often  stopped 
short  by  finding  that  as  he  advances,  the  subject 
involves  conceptions  or  requires  a  tension  of  mind 
to  which  his  powers  are  not  equal.      It  is  an  old 
remark  at  Cambridge,  that  if  a  man  who  has  got 
to  the  length  of  his  tether  were  to  present  himself 
year  after  year  for  the  Mathematical  Tripos,  he 
might  perhaps    rise  a  place  or  two  at  first  but 
would    soon   become    stationary    and    then    sink. 
This  would  not  be  so  true  in  subjects  depending 
on   wide  reading,  like  Law  or  History,  or  some 
kinds  of  Natural  Science.      If  we  were  forced  to 
judge  of  a  man's  general  ability  by  some  single 
proof  which   could  be  produced   in    Examination, 
the    defjree    of   his    Terminal  Excellence   in    the 
skilled  work  of  the  branch  of  Learning  he  might 
select,    would    be    as    trustworthy  a  criterion    as 
Ave  could  find.     But  the  difficult  point  to  ascer- 
tain is  whether  the  excellence  be  terminal  or  still 
progressive,   and   to  do  this   it  will  be  necessary 
to  know  something  of  the  mental  history  of  the 
candidates.      Some    indications    may    indeed    be 
drawn    from    the   st}-le    of   their   work,    but    con- 


The  Functions  of  Exaniinal ions.    Selection.    245 


elusions  obtained   from  such  evidence  cannot  be 
trusted  implicitly. 

By  the  exercise,  then,  of  this  Assimilative 
Memory,  we  obtain  acquirements  -which  can  be 
produced  in  Examination  when  wanted,  and 
which  are  not  mere  temporary  adjuncts,  but  part 
and  parcel  of  the  man  himself.  Again,  the  more 
the  candidate  is  master  of  the  art  which  results 
from  his  learning,  the  less  embarrassed  is  he  by 
mechanical  difficulties,  and  the  fuller  play  can  he 
give  to  his  taste,  his  imagination  and  his  desire 
to  express  his  conceptions  fully  and  accurately. 
The  scholar  who  is  not  quite  master  of  the  lan- 
guage he  deals  with,  or  the  mathematician  who 
is  not  quite  at  home  in  the  use  of  his  analytical 
instruments,  can  no  more  fully  bring  out  upon 
paper  all  that  he  sees  in  his  author  or  all  that 
is  in  his  mind,  than  the  statuary  who  is  imperfectly 
skilled  in  using  his  chisel,  can  give  full  effect  to 
his  conceptions. 

It  is  partly  on  this  account,  partly  from  the 
value  which  attaches  to  all  first-rate  work — both 
from  its  utility  and  the  paucity  of  those  who 
can  do  it — but  most  of  all  from  the  fact  that  the 
power  of  advancing  to  very  high  excellence  shows 
various  superior  qualities  of  mind,  that  where  it 
has    been    desired  to    select    the    ablest   men   l)v 


246   The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 

Examination,  more  weight  has  been  given,  as  our 
experience  has  increased,  to  the  mastery  of  some 
acquirement  admitting  of  appHcation,  and  less  to 
passive  knowledge.  It  is  then  quite  a  canon  of 
competitive  Examinations  that  the  best  criterion  of 
mental  power  is,  to  be  able  to  do  something — to 
perform  some  class  of  complex  intellectual  opera- 
tions— with  great  perfection. 

Every  college  tutor  knows  the  type  of  man 
who  might  obtain  a  low  place  in  the  second  class 
for  several  sorts  of  Honours,  but  who  would 
never  rise  to  a  first  class  degree  in  any  one 
branch.  Such  a  person  may  be  very  useful  for 
many  purposes,  for  teaching  especially,  but  he 
will  rarely  prove  to  be  a  man  of  first-rate  men- 
tal power.  There  is  one  sort  of  mind — that 
which  is  surcharged  with  native  thoughts — which 
offers  an  exception  to  this  remark.  Moreover  the 
special  excellence  may  be  too  clearly  bought :  a 
youth  may  be  so  narrowly  trained  in  order  to  be 
rendered  a  remarkable  performer  in  some  one  wa)', 
as  to  suffer  in  general  capability  as  well  as  in 
culture.      This  will  be  spoken  of  presently. 

One  very  marked  difference  between  minds  of 
different  orders  is  seen  in  the  susceptibility  and 
the  more  delicate  finish  of  the  mental  impressions 
of  the  superior  sort.      It    is    only    fine    intellect 


J 


The  Functions  of  Examinations,  Selection.  247 
which  are 

"Wax  to  receive  nnd  marble  to  retain." 

The  difference  I  mean  will  be  best  understood  by 
an  illustration.  Suppose  that  we  have  a  beauti- 
fully engraved  intaglio  gem,  of  which  we  wish 
to  get  an  impression;  if  we  use  coarse  sealing-wax 
and  imperfectly  melt  it,  the  chief  prominences  and 
depressions  will  indeed  appear  on  the  seal,  and 
the  ordinary  observer  would  say  that  the  im- 
[)ression  was  quite  sufficiently  good ;  not  so  the 
connoisseur.  He  sees  that  it  has  the  form  with- 
out the  beauty  and  the  life,  it  is,  compared  to 
what  it  should  be,  what  copies  of  a  Raphael 
painted  to  order  arc  to  the  original,  that  is  to  say, 
like  it  in  everything  but  the  charm.  But  let  us 
now  take  the  finest  wax  specially  prepared,  and 
have  it  thoroughly  and  uniformly  liquefied,  then 
apply  strong  pressure,  and  the  result  is  quite 
another  thing.  The  most  delicate  tracings,  the 
perfect  form  of  every  prominence  and  hollow,  are 
now  rendered  with  perfect  accuracy  in  hard  and 
glossy  wax. 

This  will  help  us  to  understand  the  difference 
in  the  degrees  in  which  the  ordinar)-  man  and  one 
of  singularly  fine  perception  lay  hold  of  the  mean- 
ing of  a  pregnant  passage  in  a  great  author,  or  of 
a  subtle  conception  in  science. 


248   The  Functions  of  Examinations.   Selection. 

One  man  will  see  all  the  force  that  is  conveyed 
in  an  epithet  or  in  the  emphatic  position  of  a  par- 
ticular word ;  he  will  catch  the  spirit  of  an  author 
and  the  genius  of  a  language ;  he  will  not  be 
satisfied  until  he  has  got  hold  of  the  exact  mean- 
ing of  every  technical  and  scientific  term,  and 
marked  the  reason  for  every  limitation  in  the 
enunciation  of  a  theorem.  At  every  step  of  an 
analytical  investigation  he  will  interpret  the  pro- 
cess and  follow  the  train  of  geometrical  or  phy- 
sical conceptions  to  which  the  interpretation  leads; 
v/hile  the  man  of  more  blunt  perceptions  will  be 
content  with  masterincr  the  orrammatical  meaninof 
of  his  author,  and  with  following  the  main  course 
of  a  mathematical  investigation  or  of  a  piece  of 
o'eneral  reasonincr.  The  imaofes  formed  in  his 
mind's  eye  are  like  those  seen  in  a  telescope  which 
is  not  accurately  brought  to  focus  ;  and  if  the 
niceties  which  he  has  missed  be  pointed  out  to 
him,  he  is  apt  to  think  that  his  own  notions  were 
"  near  enough  "  to  correctness,  and  that  the  mi- 
nuteness insisted  on  is  over-refined. 

This  delicacy  of  perception  is  well  brought  out 
by  the  higher  kinds  of  Exaniinatlon  at  present  in 
use.  A  candidate,  in  order  to  convey  his  concep- 
tion, must  be  able  to  find  language  to  express  just 
what  he  wants  to  say;  and  thus  we  gauge  his  per- 


TJie  Functions  of  Exaniinat ions.   Selection.   249 


ceptive  faculty  in  combination  with  the  power  of 
expression.  This  power  generally  accompanies 
vividness  of  conception,  for  when  a  bright  and 
distinct  image  is  formed  on  the  mental  retina,  the 
right  word  will  with  a  little  practice  follow  the 
idea,  if  the  mind  be  vigorous  and  fresh,  just  as 
the  marksman's  hand  follows  his  eye. 

We  now  come  to  a  power  M'hich  I  have  al- 
ready spoken  of  in  connexion  with  the  anal)tical 
memory,  that  of  seizing  on  the  main  features  of 
a  subject,  and  comprising  the  whole  compass  of  a 
matter  in  a  single  view.  This  faculty  indicates 
mass  and  robustness  of  mind,  while  that  last 
spoken  of  shows  sensibility  and  fineness  of  tex- 
ture, A  strong  mind  having  made  sure  of  one  or 
two  principles,  will  not  take  his  eye  off  the  beacon 
before  him ;  the  man  who  has  great  refinement 
and  susceptibility  rather  than  power  of  mind, 
sometimes  gets  bewildered  by  the  multitude  of 
side-lights  that  claim  his  attention. 

Connected  with  this  power  of  intuitive  ana- 
lysis is  a  quality  which  comes  much  under  the 
teacher's  notice.  I  will  call  it  range  of  mental 
field  of  view.  There  are  minds  which  will  master 
a  small  quantity  of  matter  well  enough,  but  which 
are  utterly  overpowered  when  they  have  to  deal 
with  a  considerable  bulk.      If  they  be  examined 


250   The  Functions  of  Exaininatio7is.    Selection. 

chapter  by  chapter — In  Mechanics,  we  will  sup- 
pose, or  in  Political  Economy — they  will  answer 
intelligently,  and  even  work  out  results  in  par- 
ticular cases :  but  as  they  pass  on,  one  set  of 
notions  drives  the  other  out ;  a  new  slide  has 
been  put  into  the  camera  of  their  minds,  and  their 
view  has  "dissolved."  When  at  the  end  of  the 
course  they  are  examined  in  the  whole  subject, 
they  produce  much  less  than  was  expected  from 
them.  Such  a  failure  (supposing  the  pupil  to  be 
diligent)  is  a  sign  that  the  mental  range  is  small. 
The  mind  may  be  a  very  fair  one  as  far  as  It 
goes,  but  it  is  on  a  small  scale.  There  Is  no 
room  in  it  for  laying  one  conception  beside  an- 
other, and  so  forming  a  complete  map  of  a  pro- 
vince of  knowledge.  All  such  a  man's  acquire- 
ments will  be  fragmentary.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
man  of  a  large  mental  field  of  view  is  not  over- 
whelmed though  the  extent  of  a  subject  be  great, 
provided  it  be  tolerably  homogeneous  (a  great 
diversity  of  subjects  I  hold  to  be  very  injurious) : 
with  him  it  forms  an  organic  whole,  while  with 
the  others  it  Is  only  a  congeries  of  proposi- 
tions. He  sees  the  whole  configuration  of  the 
subject,  and  its  various  parts  are  bound  together 
in  his  mind  by  a  general  conception.  Hence  it  Is 
obvious  that  frequent  Examinations,  each  cover- 


The  Fiinctions  of  Exaviuiations.    Selection.    251 

ixx'g  a  small  portion  only  of  ground,  whatever  their 
educational  use  may  be,  will  fail  to  discriminate 
between  different  degrees  of  this  sort  of  intellec- 
tual power  ;  for  the  extent  of  mental  field  of  view 
cannot  be  tested  in  a  small  area. 

It  is  well  known  that  a  very  feeble  person  ma\" 
pass  an  Examination  In  a  considerable  amount  of 
matter,  if  he  be  allowed  to  take  a  very  small  quan- 
tity at  a  time.  The  case  then  comes  almost  to 
that  of  the  "repetition"  of  a  schoolboy,  who  has 
trained  his  memory  just  to  carry  a  week's  work. 
The  extent  of  this  mental  held  of  view  varies 
very  greatly  in  different  persons,  and  from  m\' 
experience  I  consider  Its  width  of  range  to  be 
a  good  approximate  measure  of  general  ability, 
while  its  dimensions  may  be  pretty  accuratel}' 
taken  by  a  well-conducted  Examination. 

Imagination  has  entered  into  many  of  the 
compound  qualities  which  I  have  noticed.  My 
business  with  them  was  not  to  analyse  them,  but 
to  consider  them  as  indications  of  ability  cognisa- 
ble by  Examination.  I  must  now  make  some 
remarks  on  I  machination  as  a  distinct  Facultv. 

The  term  Imagination  is  variously  defined  by 
philosophical  writers.  I  here  employ  it  in  its 
niost  comprehensive  sense,  so  as  to  embrace  both 
the  series  of  operations  whereby  it  forms  or  com- 


52    The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 


bines  conceptions,  and  also  the  power  of  readily 
evolving  thoughts  or  expedients. 

There  is  more  variation  in  different  minds 
in  point  of  Imagination  than  in  almost  any  other 
faculty.  Persons  deficient  in  it  may  be  excellent 
men  of  business,  or  possess  a  great  knowledge  of 
facts  and  of  books,  but  they  can  never  attain  the 
highest  rank  in  any  sciences  (except  those  that 
are  merely  classificatory),  or  in  any  career  which 
requires  that  they  should  understand  the  modes  of 
thought  of  past  generations  or  influence  those  of 
the  present  one.  This  imaginative  faculty  usually 
acts  independently  of  the  will :  it  is  called  into  play 
by  a  sight  or  a  word,  through  association  ;  but  in 
disciplined  minds  it  is  subjected  to  the  will,  and  is 
set  to  do  appointed  tasks.  In  the  first  case  we  have 
the  antoniatic,  in  the  second  the  volitional,  action 
spoken  of  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  chapter. 

The  volitional  action  of  the  Imagination  is 
that  which  comes  most  before  us  in  l^xaminations. 
Indeed  we  shall  see  as  we  proceed  that  Exa- 
minations promote  volitional  action  and  somewhat 
check  spontaneity  and  profuseness  of  ideas. 

The  power  of  distinctly  presenting  to  the  mind 
some  abstruse  conception,  like  that  of  polarity  or 
molecular  action,  is  an  exercise  of  imagination 
which  is  in  a  high  degree  volitional,  and  it  is  so 


The  Functions  of  Examinatio)is.    Selection.   253 

in  two  ways.  It  is  the  result  of  a  direct  effort 
of  the  will  on  each  occasion,  and  it  could  not  be 
exercised  unless  the  imaoination  had  been  ha- 
bitually  trained  to  severe  exercise,  and  to  obedi- 
ence to  its  master.  The  power  of  concentration 
as  well  as  of  imagination  is  called  out,  when  the 
mind  is  directed  to  picture  to  itself  conceptions 
like  those  just  spoken  of.  This  concentration  is 
itself  a  very  important  faculty ;  indeed  it  was 
to  his  beinor  able  to  withdraw  his  mind  from 
distractions  and  direct  its  whole  energies  to  one 
point  that  Sir  Isaac  Newton  attributed  his  success 
as  a  discoverer. 

The  clearness  and  correctness  of  geometrical 
and  physical  conception  can  be  accurately  tested 
in  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy.  This  is 
one  of  the  peculiar  facilities  which,  as  was  said 
in  the  last  chapter,  these  sciences  present  to  the 
Examiner.  I)y  scrutinizing  the  student's  views 
on  these  branches,  and  making  him  apply  his 
knowledge,  we  test,  in  addition  to  his  knowledge 
and  power  of  carrying  a  train  of  reasoning,  the 
degree  in  which  he  possesses  a  very  valuable  sort 
of  imagination.  It  is  by  the  want  of  the  power 
of  conception  rather  than  that  of  logical  percep- 
tion that  the  mathematical  student  is  most  com- 
monly checked  in  his  advance.    Put  besides  being 


2  54    The  Functions  of  Exaviinat ions.    Selection. 

engaged  in  framing  conceptions,  imagination  is 
required  to  seize  on  the  relation  of  ideas  in  a 
way  which  cannot  be  better  described  than  it  is  by 
the  late  Mr  Robert  Leslie  Ellis  in  the  following 
striking  passage  : — ■ 

"  Every  one  who  has  really  studied  mathematics  must  re- 
member cases  in  which,  after  long  and  patient  thought,  the 
reason  of  the  truth  of  a  proposition,  with  the  demonstration  of 
which  he  may  have  been  acquainted  for  years,  has  seemed  to 
dawn  on  him;  the  proposition  thenceforth  becoming,  as  it 
were,  a  part  of  his  own  mind, — a  matter  about  which  he  is  no 
more  capable  of  doubting  than  about  the  primary  conceptions 
of  form  and  magnitude.  The  mind  thus  brought  into  nearer, 
if  not  immediate,  contact  with  necessary  truth  is  conscious  of 
its  own  development;  and  herein,  I  believe,  resides  the  special 
benefit  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  mathematics,  a  benefit, 
that  is,  distinct  from  the  exercise  of  patience  and  attention 
which  it  undoubtedly  requires,  but  which  is  required  also  in 
other  pursuits.  The  study  of  mathematics  is  especially  valuable, 
not  because  it  gives  the  student  practice  in  ratiocination  but 
because  it  enlarges  the  sphere  of  his  intuition,  by  giving  him 
distinct  and  conscious  possession  of  truths  which  lay  hid  in  his 
conceptions  of  figure,  number,  and  the  like." 

It  might  be  supposed  that  Languages  were 
more  properly  the  domain  of  Lnagi nation  than 
Science  ;  but  Language,  unless  treated  as  a  na- 
tural science,  offers  singularly  little  scope  for  the 
play  of  fanc)'.  Grammar,  as  commonly  taught, 
is  in  this  respect  the  most  arid  of  studies.  As 
soon,    however,    as    wc    come    to   Literature,    the 


I 


The  Fwictions  of  Exaniinalions.    Selection.    255 

mind  is  brouirht  into  contact  with  the  imacfinative 
creations  of  great  men,  and  in  picturing'  them  with 
nicety,  as  well  as  in  grasping  the  full  meaning 
which  a  few  pregnant  words  were  meant  to  convey 
to  the  author's  readers,  Imagination  is  brought 
into  active  operation.  This  exercise  of  it  is  strictly 
volitional  :  but  the  fancy  is  at  the  same  time  kin- 
dled into  vigorous  automatic  action  by  contact 
with  fine  minds.  The  volitional  play  of  imagina- 
tion can  be  roughly  tested  like  that  of  the  delicacy 
of  perception  of  which  it  is  a  principal  com- 
ponent, by  translation  on  paper ;  but,  as  is  the 
case  in  all  attempts  to  test  ability,  it  is  only  where 
the  knowledge  is  very  considerable  that  we  can 
see  in  the  student's  exercise  the  free  workin^f 
of  his  mind.  So  loncj  as  he  is  struofHincr  to 
recollect  the  meaning  of  words,  or  to  apply  rules 
of  grammar,  his  imagination  is  dormant. 

Dramatic  power  requires  a  powerful  imagina- 
tion and  quick  human  sympathies;  it  is  not  con- 
fined to  the  writers  of  drama.  We  find  it  in  the 
Prologue  to  the  Canterbury  Tales  in  greater  per- 
fection than  in  Beaumont  and  Fletcher.  It  resides 
in  the  power  of  transporting  oneself  into  the  cha- 
racter we  conceive — of  becoming  him,  as  it  were,  in 
virtue  of  the  cogency  of  our  conception — of  seeing 
matters  from  his  point  of  view,  and  speaking  from 


256    The  Functions  of  Exa?ni nations.    Selection. 

his  lips.  Marlowe  and  Byron  place  themselves  in 
the  positions  of  F'austus,  of  Edward  the  Second, 
of  Sardanapalus,  and  Marino  Falieri,  and  show  us 
what  they  would  have  said  and  done  in  the  situa- 
tion of  their  heroes  :  but  Shakespeare  puts  actu- 
ally new  men  and  women  before  us,  and  we 
never  think  of  the  author  at  all.  Many  mimics 
will  represent  to  the  life  what  they  have  heard 
pass  ;  but  only  one  with  some  dramatic  power 
will  make  his  characters  talk  as  we  feel  they  would 
have  done  in  a  supposed  case. 

About  this  species  of  imagination,  Examina- 
tions tell  us  little :  it  can  only  be  tested  di- 
rectly by  calling  on  the  candidates  to  write  a 
speech  or  a  letter  in  the  character  of  some  per- 
sonage, whose  life  and  writings  they  have  studied ; 
though  traces  of  imagination  of  this  kind  will 
peep  out  in  the  course  of  a  comprehensive  Ex- 
amination, in  little  traits  and  touches  either  in 
translation  or  in  answers  to  questions  on  dramatic 
literature.  This  kind  of  imagination  is  not  re- 
quired for  literary  men  alone ;  no  man  will  be 
quite  successful  in  high  offices  of  administration, 
such  as  the  government  of  an  Indian  province, 
who  has  not  sufficient  tincture  of  it  to  give 
him  the  power  of  putting  himself  in  the  place  of 
others,  of  seeing  with  their  eyes,  and  feeling  with 


The  Functions  of  Examiiiations.    Selection.   257 

their  nerves.  A  Piindoo  population  will  rather 
submit  to  be  ill-used  now  and  then  by  a  tyrannical 
native  prince,  than  to  be  steadily  misunderstood 
by  a  benevolent  Briton. 

Hitherto  we  have  regarded  Imagination  as 
being  employed  in  forming  the  conceptions  which 
are  required  in  particular  branches  of  study.  This 
she  does  under  the  direction  of  the  will.  Exa- 
minations in  these  branches  test  the  perfectness 
of  these  conceptions,  and  thereby  the  amount  of 
the  imaginative  power  and  the  state  of  disci- 
pline into  which  it  has  been  brought.  But  she 
performs  also  another  function,  which  is  better 
recognized  as  her  duty.  She  perceives  relations 
between  ideas;  and  these  perceptions  which,  bid- 
den or  unbidden,  occur  to  her  are  commonly 
spoken  of  as  "thoughts."  She  may  perform  both 
of  these  functions,  or  she  may  perform  one  of 
them  well  and  fail  in  the  other. 

A  person  may  have  a  clear  insight  into  the 
mode  of  action  of  forces  in  physics,  or  he  may 
picture  to  himself  the  events  of  history,  and  )et 
his  mind  may  yield  nothing  of  itself.  No  apt 
illustrations  will  strike  him;  no  happy  expedients, 
no  reflections,  will  occur  to  him.  What  he  reads 
he  will  understand,  and  reproduce  as  he  received 
it,  but  nothinof  more  will  come  of  it.     Such  a  man 

L.  17 


258   TJie  Fniictions  of  Examinations.    Sclcctioii. 

may  do  good  work  in  many  ways  ;  he  may  make  a 
conscientious  though  hardly  a  suggestive  teacher, 
and  he  may  be  an  excellent  man  of  business  and  a 
useful  subordinate  as  a  civil  servant. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  men  whose  minds 
give  off  thoughts  so  freely  as  to  hinder  concentra- 
tion of  attention.  They  are  impatient  or  incapable 
of  steadying  their  mental  gaze  in  one  direction 
sufficiently  long  to  form  a  well-defined  and  per- 
sistent image  in  the  camera  of  their  minds.  Here 
we  have  automatic  action  of  the  imagination  in 
excess  of  volitional  power.  Such  persons  may  often 
hit  on  novel  views,  and  may  even  urge  them 
with  plausible  arguments  and  forcible  illustrations. 
They  may  or  may  not  have  the  power  of  will 
to  marshal  their  ideas  along  the  path  in  which 
they  wish  to  proceed.  A  person  may  be  rich  in 
thoughts  and  yet  unable  to  carry  on  a  long  train  of 
reasoning :  he  may  start  a  notion  and  hardly  care 
to  see  whither  it  would  conduct  him.  The  capa- 
city for  making  brilliant  observations  is  most  tell- 
inof  in  conversation,  for  here  a  train  of  reasoninor  is 
out  of  place,  and  the  play  of  the  imagination  should 
be  automatic.  In  like  manner  the  charm  of  cer- 
tain essayists,  Charles  Lamb  for  instance,  lies  in 
the  absence  of  set  purpose  and  in  the  exuberance  of 
happy  thought.     Wc  do  not  care  whither  we  are 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.   259 

going  as  we  stroll  along  with  him — our  delight 
is  to  be  in  his  company.  To  read  the  Essays 
of  Elia  is  most  recreative  from  this  very  absence 
of  volition  in  them.  The  exertion  of  will  involves 
effort,  and  even  seeing  it  exerted  prevents  perfect 
rest  by  reason  of  sympathy-^. 

Examiners  will  always  gladly  note  a  copious- 
ness of  ideas.  But  if  it  be  not  controlled  by  will, 
if  it  end  in  brilliant  talk,  if  imagination,  instead  of 
lighting  its  possessor  along  his  road  to  a  certain 
goal,  leads  him  astray  by  its  shifting  gleams,  then 
they  discern  a  kind  of  person  who  is  not  what 
they  are  in  search  of  They  do  not  want  a 
great  conversationalist  or  a  brilliant  essayist.  The 
performances  of  such  persons  in  life  they  will 
observe  are  usually  small  in  comparison  with  their 
reputation  among  their  friends,  and  they  want  to 
select  persons  who  in  some  way  or  other  will  do 
good  work. 

But  though  the  value  we  attach  to  this  au- 
tomatic activity  of  imagination  will  vary  with  the 
purpose  we  have  in  view  in  making  our  selection, 
still  we  may  want  to  know  how  far  such  automatic 
power  exists,  and  therefore  it  is  our  business  to 


^  I  have  known  a  person  sufTerinL;  from  the  efTects  of  over-work  quite 
distressed  by  the  mere  sight  of  labourers  using  violent  exertion. 

17—2 


26o    The  F2inctio7is  of  ExMninations.    Selection. 

consider  how  it  may  be  made  to  shew  itself  in  an 
Examination. 

If  Examiners  wish  to  see  free  play  of  thought 
in  the  candidates,  they  must  set  questions  which 
admit  of  being  treated  discursively ;  such,  for  in- 
stance, as  turn  on  the  grounds  of  scientific  prin- 
ciples, or  on  the  growth  of  certain  influences  in 
nations;  the  students  being  in  either  case  supposed 
to  have  turned  their  attention  to  the  matter.  A  man 
who  has  a  fertile  imagination  can  hardly  avoid 
shewing  it  in  his  illustrations  or  remarks;  sometimes 
he  may  be  carried  away  by  an  idea,  and  the  com- 
pactness of  his  answer  may  suffer  thereby ;  but  if 
the  idea  is  a  good  one  the  Examiner  will  give  him 
credit  for  a  creative  mind,  though  he  may  wish  to 
satisfy  himself  from  other  papers  that  the  man  has 
in  general  a  eood  control  over  the  course  of  his 
thoughts.  In  this  way  the  quality  of  which  we 
are  in  search  is  2indesig7iedly  disclosed — the  can- 
didate has  not  sat  down  with  the  intention  of 
shewing  his  wisdom,  or  his  thoughtfulness,  or  his 
smartness  in  criticism.  He  addresses  himself  to 
answer  the  question,  and  the  ideas  occur  to  him 
in  so  doing.  If  his  thick-coming  fancies  injure  the 
perspicuity  of  his  answer,  it  is,  as  I  have  said,  a 
defect  which  may  be  redeemed  by  other  answers. 
If  the  illustration  or  paradox  be  evidently  sought 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.   261 

for  and  put  in  not  to  make  his  meaning  clear, 
but  to  enrich  his  style — not  to  support  the  build- 
ing, but  to  decorate  it — then  the  Examiner  will 
not  augur  favourably. 

There  are  cases  In  which  Importance  Is  at- 
tached to  ascertaining  the  wealth  of  a  young  man's 
mind  In  point  of  Ideas,  and  an  English  Essay 
written  under  Examination  Is  regarded  as  a  mode, 
by  which  "what  there  Is  In  a  man"  may  be 
brought  to  light,  and  pretty  correctly  measured. 
For  my  own  part,  I  shrink  from  prying  over- 
much Into  what  is  growing  up  in  young  men's 
minds,  and  I  see  little  good  in  doing  so.  It 
is  very  hard  to  judge  of  the  wine  while  it  Is 
working  Itself  clear.  Even  if  we  thereby  might 
improve  our  chance  of  securing  In  a  Fellowship 
Examination  the  man  most  likely  to  "  do  credit 
to  the  College,"  I  would  rather,  as  a  college 
tutor,  forego  my  prospects  of  having  something 
to  boast  of,  than  incur  the  danger  of  fostering 
unreality  and  intellectual  coxcombry.  Since,  how- 
ever, there  are  Examinations  In  which  much  stress 
is  laid  upon  "fertility  of  thought,"  and  In  which 
Essays  are  used  to  discover  it,  I  must  consider 
the  mode  In  which  they  operate. 

The  writing  of  Essa)s  shews  two  things  ; 
what  a  man  has  to  sa)',  and  how  he  can  say  it. 


262    The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 

In  reference  to  the  latter  the  essay  is  looked  on 
as  a  mode  of  testing  the  power  of  composition. 
This  it  does  in  an  Examination  in  the  most  simple 
and  direct  way.  The  student  who  professes  to 
have  acquired  the  art  of  writing  English,  is  called 
on  to  give  a  specimen  of  his  skill.  Good  sense, 
of  course,  may  be  expected  in  the  remarks,  and 
consistency  of  view,  but  originality  is  hardly 
looked  for ;  the  style  is  more  thought  of  than 
the  matter.  Essays  are  regarded  in  this  light  in 
the  Indian  Civil  Service  Examination;  the  sub- 
jects there  given  are  usually  familiar  ones,  often 
calling  chiefly  for  a  power  of  description  or  nar- 
ration. 

But  I  am  here  concerned  with  essays  used  as 
a  means  of  discovering  the  individual's  store  of 
wisdom  or  his  productiveness  of  mind.  For  this 
purpose,  they  are,  as  I  have  said,  used  in  Fellow- 
ship Examinations,  rarely  indeed  at  Cambridge  but 
commonly  at  Oxford;  the  subjects  are  frequently 
such  as  lead  to  speculation  or  discussion,  and  are 
necessarily  of  a  "general  nature,"  that  is  to  say, 
they  may  be  treated  of  without  precise  knowledge 
of  facts,  or  of  scientific  truths.  If  this  were  not  so 
the  essay  would  be  only  a  form  of  Examination 
in  the  subject  to  which  the  facts  belong,  and  this 
subject  may  have  been  sufficiently  represented  in 


The  Functions  of  Examiiiaiioiis.    Selection.   263 

other  ways.  By  setting  an  essay  we  may,  no 
doubt,  often  mark  a  particular  kind  of  talent ;  we 
may  bring  out  some  clever  men,  though,  if  we  give 
too  great  a  share  of  consideration  to  the  results 
of  the  essay  paper,  we  may  do  injustice  to  many 
varieties  of  ability.  There  is,  moreover,  a  danger 
of  our  being  taken  in  by  some  plausible  personage 
who  has  a  knack  of  manipulating  "  masses  of 
thought,"  taken  out  of  his  tutor's  note-book,  with 
such  dexterity  as  to  give  the  impression  that  he 
has  gone  through  the  process  of  thinking  out  these 
thoughts,  that  he  is  quite  familiar  with  them,  and 
tosses  them  to  and  fro  with  giant  strength.  We 
have  heard  of  a  mine  in  the  far  west  in  which 
splendid  diamonds  were  found  by  those  who  were 
sent  to  report  on  its  value,  but  in  which  none  have 
ever  been  found  since;  and  I  fear  that  some  of 
these  well-prepared  essayists  would  prove  as  falla- 
cious as  the  mine,  if  they  were  picked  out  on  the 
score  of  the  profound  views  that  they  appear 
able  to  evolve  at  will.  It  might  be  found  that 
they,  like  it,  had  been  "salted"  for  the  occasion. 

A  man  who  has  been  thus  provided  with 
"views"  and  acute  observations  which  will  "come 
in"  under  many  heads,  may  have  destroyed  in 
himself  the  germs  of  that  power  which  he  simu- 
lates.    He  might  have  had  a  thought  or  two,  now 


264   The  Functions  of  Examinations,    Selection, 

and  then,  if  he  had  been  left  alone — but  if  he  is 
made  first  to  aim  at  a  standard  of  thought  above 
his  years,  and  then  finds  that  he  can  get  the  sort 
of  thoughts  he  wants  without  thinking,  he  is  in 
a  fair  way  to  be  spoiled  for  a  thinker.  The 
higher  and  more  speculative  the  nature  of  the 
subjects  is,  the  more  certainly  will  young  men 
be  driven  to  tutors  in  order  that  they  may  lay 
up  a  store  of  general  reflections  or  modes  of 
dealing  with  such  subjects,  and,  what  is  more 
important,  the  worse  will  be  the  effect  on  their 
own  minds.  I  have  heard  of  young  men  being 
allowed  three  hours,  without  notice  of  the  subject, 
to  deal  with  the  followino- :  "Trace  the  effects  of 
Christianity  in  forwarding  or  retarding  the  pro- 
gress of  civilisation."  Here,  it  was  said,  we  out- 
flank the  crammer,  and  must  see  the  produce  of 
the  student's  mind.  Even,  however,  if  such  a 
mode  of  examining  did  baffle  "cram",  this  would  be 
a  small  matter  compared  with  Its  educational  effect. 
We  may  lose  more  even  in  our  present  point  of 
view,  that,  namely  of  selection,  by  deteriorating 
the  whole  body  of  candidates,  than  we  gain  by 
the  increased  chance  any  such  means  may  afford 
of  picking  out  the  best. 

If  we  lead  a  young  graduate  to  think  himself 
competent  to  dispatch  in  a  forenoon  a  question  on 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.  265 

which  a  man's  hfe  time  mij^ht  be  spent,  can  we 
be  surprised  if  he  turn  out  a  self-sufficient  cox- 
comb? and  can  we  wonder  at  his  being  incapable 
of  reverence  or  conviction,  when  he  has  been 
led  to  look  on  Christianity  and  progress  and 
civilisation  as  only  a  few  of  the  counters  w^th 
which  students  and  tutors  and  Examiners  play 
the  game  of  which  a  Studentship  or  a  Fellow- 
ship is  the  prize? 

I  shall  point  out  hereafter  the  way  in  wdiich  I 
think  Essays  should  be  employed  so  as  to  give 
us  the  most  insight  into  the  pupil's  mind  without 
actually  setting  him  down  to  shew  how  cleverly 
he  can  talk  on  any  subject  that  is  put  before  him. 
But  I  have  now  to  consider  the  operation  of  the 
existing  practice. 

Whether  we  look  chiefly  to  style  and  method 
or  to  matter,  we  want  to  learn  something  of  the 
pupil's  habits  of  mind,  and  w^e  w'ant  to  see  the 
mind  w^orking  in  its  ordinary  way.  For  us  to  do 
this  it  is  first  of  all  necessary  that  the  pupil  should 
be  at  his  ease  w^ith  the  Examiner — that  is  to  say, 
he  must  banish  the  thought  of  the  Examiner  as 
much  as  possible  from  his  mind.  lie  must  not 
be  asking  himself,  "  What  will  the  Examiner 
think  of  this  or  that  sentiment?"  He  must  not 
"write  up"  to  what  the  Examiner  may  be  sup- 


266    The  Fmictlons  of  Examinations.    Selection, 

posed  to  approve.  We  want  him  to  be  as  unlike 
as  possible  to  the  author  of  the  typical  school 
theme,  who  is  highly  enamoured  of  virtue  and 
intolerant  of  vice.  It  is  not  always  easy  to 
persuade  young  people  to  appear  without  some 
conventional  mask ;  their  only  stock  of  ideas 
and  phraseology  may  belong  either  to  the  part 
of  "  propriety  "  or  to  that  of  "  advanced  thought," 
but  sometimes  they  are  natural  enough.  Young 
people  are  in  more  genial  hands  now  than 
formerly,  and  a  few  words  from  an  Examiner 
advising  them  to  write  just  what  they  think,  if 
only  for  the  sake  of  the  greater  spirit  they  will 
throw  into  their  style,  will  sometimes  bring 
about  a  happy  understanding  and  induce  them 
to  open  their  hearts.  But,  supposing  that  our 
candidates  are  past  this  primary  stage,  there  will 
still  be,  in  some  very  important  particulars,  ob- 
stacles in  the  way  of  our  forming  a  judgment 
by  what  we  see. 

I  will  specify  two  types  of  character  which 
offer  difficulty.  There  are  some  young  men  who 
are  bad  hands  at  making  believe;  they  can  find 
nothing  to  say  about  a  subject  in  which  they 
have  no  interest;  they  are  too  honest  or  too 
fastidious  to  put  down  the  current  common- 
places which  they  have  never  looked  into — they 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection.   267 

cannot  feign  indignation  or  enthusiasm  about 
"Capital  Punishment"  or  "Female  Suffrage." 
Sometimes  unpractised  hands  will  declare  that 
they  can  find  nothing  to  say,  and  these  are  not 
the  most  unpromising.  I  have  known  an  Ex- 
aminer in  such  a  case  tell  the  candidate  to  explain 
on  paper  hoiv  it  was  that  he  had  nothing  to  say, 
and  in  his  doing  this,  some  tokens  of  intelligence 
have  appeared. 

If  we  reject  such  candidates  on  account  of 
their  scanty  performance  in  the  way  of  an  Essay, 
we  may  lose  sight  of  persons  who  will  turn  out 
well ;  the  best  course  is,  when  we  suspect  that 
there  are  such  candidates  before  us,  to  allow  that, 
for  them,  this  part  of  the  Examination  has  been 
inoperative,  and  form  our  judgment  on  the  rest 
of  it,  so  far  as  we  can  do  so  without  injustice 
to  others. 

There  is  a  passage  in  Mr  Helps'  Friends  in 
CoJincil^  which  bears  on  this  peculiarity  of  some 
young  minds.  One  of  the  personages  of  the  dia- 
logue says  that  a  well-known  man  of  letters  told 
him  that  as  a  boy,  he  was  found  to  be  "the 
stupidest  little  dog  at  original  composition "  in 
the  whole  school.    "  I  used,"  says  he,  "  to  take  the 

^  Frii-nds  in  Council.     Second  Scries,  p.  204.     John  W.   Parker  and 
Son.     1859. 


268    The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 

heading  of  the  theme  back  to  my  room,  spend 
half  an  hour  on  looking  at  it,  placing  it  in  different 
lights — physically,  not  mentally — and  at  the  end 
found  out  that  I  had  nothing  whatever  to  say 
about  it."  This  he  explains  to  have  come  from 
a  "  deadly  kind  of  sincerity — an  almost  stupid 
sincerity."  "  I  cannot,"  he  adds,  "  talk  from  de- 
rived thoughts,  I  must  have  seen  or  felt  the 
things  myself  that  I  describe."  He  continues, 
"  the  master  read  out  '  A  great  man  is  never 
greater  than  in  adversity.'  I  took  the  heading 
down  and  stared  at  it  hopelessly,  I  did  not 
know  what  a  great  man  is  like,  I  did  not  know 
what  adversity  is,  and  having  a  very  sceptical 
nature,  I  should  have  doubted  extremely  whether 
the  great  man  is  greater  in  adversity." 

If  this  "  man  of  letters  "  had  had  the  advantage 
of  being  prepared  to  compete  for  the  Indian  Civil 
Service,  he  would  have  learned  that  the  doubt  he 
speaks  of  was  the  very  thing  he  wanted.  For  one 
of  the  standard  bits  of  advice  is,  or  used  to  be, 
''When  an  aphorism  is  set,  begin  by  contesting 
its  truth;  there  is  much  more  room  for  talking 
if  you  deny  than  if  you  assent."  A  form  of 
opening  much  in  vogue  in  such  cases,  I  am  told,  is 
the  following:  "This  is  one  of  those  apophthegms 
which  arc  regarded  as  truisms,  until  upon  close 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection.   269 

investigation  they  are  found  to  be  falsehoods ;"  but 
pupils  are  cautioned  against  using  the  exact  form 
of  words,  lest  the  similarity  of  their  phraseology 
should  strike  the  Examiner. 

The  other  case  in  which  the  action  of  an  Essay 
is  exceptional  is  that  in  which  the  activity  of  the 
brain  in  originating  thoughts  is  abnormally  great. 
I  have  already  observed  that  persons  of  this 
character  are  frequently  slower  in  attaining  ex- 
cellence in  the  "arts"  resulting  from  certain  studies 
than  those  whose  calibre  is  smaller  on  the  whole 
but  who  are  less  diverted  from  what  is  before  them 
by  what  is  going  on  within.  It  might  be  thought 
that  by  setting  such  candidates  to  write  an  Eng- 
lish Essay  we  were  taking  the  best  means  of 
bringing  out  their  peculiar  powers.  We  find, 
however,  that  this  is  not  always  the  case.  If  a 
subject  takes  hold  of  their  fancy,  they  see  so 
many  wa}'s  of  looking  at  it — so  many  arguments 
present  themselves  on  different  sides  at  the  same 
time,  that  they  cannot  rapidly  take  a  view  clear 
and  consistent  enough  to  be  put  on  paper.  They 
may  not  necessarily  be  inferior  to  the  rest  in 
power  of  arrangement,  but  they  are  more  em- 
barrassed because  they  have  much  more  to  ar- 
range. Persons  of  this  cast  of  mind  suffer  much 
from   the    limitation    of   time.       Their   mode    of 


270   The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 

proceeding  if  left  to  themselves  would  be,  to 
begin  by  writing  fully,  putting  down  pretty  freely 
the  ideas  that  suggested  themselves,  then  to  re- 
view their  composition,  suppress  much,  and  de- 
velop what  was  wanted  to  give  coherence  to  the 
whole.  This  would  not  be  a  bad  plan  for  them 
to  follow;  in  time  they  would  select  what  was 
apposite  for  their  purpose  as  they  went  on.  But 
such  students  are  often  overtaken  by  their  Ex- 
amination before  they  have  reached  this  stage — • 
for  minds  of  original  power  do  not  always  ripen 
early — and  thus  they  are  often  bewildered  by 
o-ettine  a  view  of  the  subject  which  cannot 
possibly  be  put  on  their  limited  canvas :  they 
often  begin  with  an  introduction  which  occupies 
nearly  all  their  time,  and  their  conclusions  have 
to  be  huddled  in,  leaving  their  best  thoughts  un- 
said. Their  work  is  like  an  architectural  building 
which  is  all  porch. 

These  cases  exemplify  the  danger  there  is  in 
using  an  essay  as  an  absolute  criterion.  We 
must  not  always  infer  the  absence  of  the  powers 
wanted  for  good  composition  because  they  do  not 
appear,  and  this  mode  of  examining  should  only 
be  used  where  great  latitude  can  be  left  to  the 
Examiners,  where,  in  fact,  the  whole  Examination 
is   viewed  simply  as  a   means  of  arriving  at  an 


The  Fwictioiis  of  Examinations.    Selection.     271 

opinion  on  the  merits  of  the  candidates,  and  each 
Examiner  is  allowed  to  arrive  at  his  conclusion  by 
any  means  he  thinks  best.  We  can  hardly  give 
a  definite  number  of  "marks"  to  an  English 
Essay. 

The  two  cases  I  have  just  considered,  would 
come  before  us  if  we  took  a  body  of  candidates 
who  were  not  expecting  to  be  set  to  write 
an  essay,  and  who  had  therefore  never  been 
"  specially  prepared."  Another  set  of  difliculties 
is  introduced  by  such  preparation  ;  the  Examiner 
has  to  separate  what  is  due  to  the  pupil  from 
what  is  due  to  the  tutor.  We  must  not  give  way 
to  the  practice  of  branding  as  "cram"  all  that 
is  received  from  instruction.  For  a  tutor  to  give 
his  pupils  hints  to  work  up  into  an  essay  is  an 
excellent  way  of  teaching;  such  hints  may  come 
into  use  in  what  is  produced  in  Examination,  and 
the  Examiner  may  mistake  them  for  the  pupil's 
own  ideas;  but  the  fault  is  not  that  of  the  teacher. 
He  must  not  refrain  from  doinor  the  best  for  his 
pupil's  mind  because  an  Examiner  may  overrate 
his  power  owing  to  his  being  well  taught.  The 
case  is  indeed  different  if  the  student  is  supplied, 
not  with  a  few  hints  for  an  Essay  once  a  fortnight 
Avhich  will  furnish  food  for  thought,  but  with 
particular  ways  of  looking  at   or  putting  things, 


272      The  FiLUctions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

which  are  recommended  to  him  for  their  Hkeh- 
hood  to  be  of  service  in  an  Examination.  If 
the  pupil  puts  forward  his  tutor's  views  with  the 
hope  of  getting  credit  for  them  as  coming  "out 
of  his  own  head,"  the  moraHty  of  the  proceed- 
inof  is  defective. 

If  we  take  the  candidates  who  present  them- 
selves for  any  open  Examination  we  shall  find  that 
some  few  have  been  trained  to  write  English  well, 
a  few  more  have  had  some  assistance,  while  a  large 
number  have  never  been  taught  to  express  them- 
selves at  all.  Those  who  have  acquired  a  good 
English  style,  have  an  advantage  which  should 
quite  rightly  stand  them  in  good  stead.  This  is 
not  a  mere  transitory  possession,  but  one  that 
permanently  increases  the  efficiency  of  the  man; 
more  than  this,  it  is  true  that  "Le  style  c'est 
I'homme,"  and  if  a  person  expresses  himself  with 
perspicuity  and  vigour  we  may  judge  favourably 
of  his  general  ability,  and  infer  that  he  has  some 
taste  in  English  Literature.  This  taste  will  go  far 
to  induce  him  to  carry  on  self-cultivation,  and 
therefore,  as  I  have  before  said,  must  be  taken 
into  account  in  selecting  the  candidates  most  likely 
to  turn  out  able  men. 

But  apart  from  the  question  of  style,  we  find 
that  out  of  a  number  of  candidates  about  one  in 


The  Ftuictions  of  Examinations.     Selection.     273 

ten  makes  some  striking  remarks  ;  and  sometimes 
such  a  candidate  may  not  have  attracted  atten- 
tion by  his  other  performances.  We  may  often 
feel  confident,  from  the  naturalness  of  the  style, 
from  the  way  in  which  the  illustration  seems  to 
come  readily  to  hand,  and  the  genuine  interest 
shewn  in  the  point  discussed,  that  the  candidate 
is  really  saying  what  he  thinks  and  feels,  and  not 
what  has  been  put  into  his  mouth.  There  are 
minds  too  elastic  in  substance  to  be  moulded 
into  set  shape,  and  these  will  shew  freshness  of 
thought  in  an  English  essay,  and  we  may  see 
from  it,  what  we  want,  the  real  mind  of  the  man. 
It  is  the  success  of  the  system  in  cases  like  these 
which  has  given  it  its  repute. 

Further,  an  essay  acts  effectively  in  what 
we  may  call  a  negative  sense.  It  shews  where 
the  mind  is  arid,  where  there  is  no  imagination 
or  ideality.  This  is  one  of  the  indications  on 
which  experience  shews  that  most  dependence 
may  be  placed. 

If  a  number  of  candidates  for  a  scholarship 
be  set  down  to  write  essays  there  will  be 
some — occasionally  fair  proficients  in  Classics, 
or  Mathematics,  or  Natural  Science — whose  per- 
formances will  shew  that  they  have  little  or  no- 
thing in   their  minds.      They  do   not   belong  to 

L.  18 


2  74     The  Functions  of  Exa7ni7iations.     Selection. 

the  exceptional  classes  spoken  of  just  now,  those 
who  send  up  hardly  anything,  or  else  some  dis- 
jointed matter.  These  youths  write  several  pages 
each  of  grammatical  English,  without  an  idea, 
without  a  happy  illustration,  or  a  phrase  which 
exactly  hits  the  mark.  It  sometimes  seems  as 
if  their  special  training  for  a  definite  object  had 
repressed  the  romance  of  youth.  Ask  them  to 
sketch  their  ideal  of  a  career,  and  you  may  find 
it  terminate  in  domestic  comfort  or  in  earninof 
money  :  for  instance,  in  "  a  snug  solicitor's  busi- 
ness in  a  country  town  with  an  adjacent  villa," 
or  in  a  mastership  in  a  school,  with  vacations 
spent  with  a  few  pupils  in  Wales,  "whereby  I 
might  combine  profit  with  pleasure,"  The  Eng- 
lish Essay  does  great  service  in  laying  bare 
minds  of  this  description.  The  dull  youth  may 
have  been  studious,  and  his  brain  is  the  more 
receptive  from  the  absence  of  any  internal  com- 
motion, so  that  he  may  be  brought  up  to  the 
standard  of  what  may  be  called  the  staple 
"  trade  article,"  which  schoolmasters  can  dispose 
of  at  the  Colleges  which  have  small  Open 
Scholarships.  The  thinness  of  the  soil  is  often 
displayed  by  the  English  Essay,  and  frequently 
its  prognostication  proves  correct. 

Our  enquiry  then  leads  to  the  conclusion,  that 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection.   275 

the  English  Essay  serves  the  purpose  of  testing- 
the  fund  of  ideas  in  the  minds  of  candidates  well 
enough  when  the  imaginative  faculty  is  very 
strong  or  very  weak,  but  that  in  intermediate 
cases  we  cannot  depend  on  it  to  detect  shades  of 
difference.  Indeed  imagination  is  so  various  in 
form  as  well  as  in  degree,  that  we  cannot  expect 
to  determine  nicely  grades  of  superiority  in  this 
respect ;  we  should  require,  in  this  as  in  so  many 
other  cases,  to  know  how  the  candidates  have 
been  prepared. 

For  instance,  a  young  man  brought  up  in  the 
society  of  grown  people  of  cultivated  intellect, 
imbibes,  without  any  action  of  his  own  mind,  the 
thoughts  of  those  about  him.  He  may  have  been 
accustomed  to  take  part  in  the  conversation  that 
passes  around  him,  and  has  thus  possessed  him- 
self of  a  much  (greater  ranore  of  observations  on 
the  subjects  of  the  day,  than  falls  to  the  lot  of 
a  schoolboy,  though  possibly  his  mind  has  not 
worked  so  much;  he  has  been  imbibing  with- 
out effort  of  his  own.  On  the  other  hand,  a  lad 
restricted  to  the  society  of  his  coevals  at  school, 
is  often  shut  out  from  all  intellectual  suggestion 
excepting  through  what  is  given  him  to  learn  : 
the  conversation  that  passes  between  schoolboys 
does  not  commonly  tend  to  the  development  of 

18—2 


276    The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

ideas.  Hence  in  an  essay  produced  in  a  Scholar- 
ship Examination,  or  in  that  for  the  Indian  Civil 
Service,  a  youth  from  a  cultivated,  home  may 
shew  to  advantage,  but  his  greater  supply  of 
toj^ics  does  not  always  represent  superior  power. 

In  these  cases  I  have  been  supposing  that 
account  is  taken  of  the  style  and  method  as  well 
as  of  the  matter  of  the  essay.  Style,  besides 
being  in  itself  valuable,  tells  us  something  of  the 
man  :  when  it  flows  easily  it  shews  that  the 
mental  apparatus  works  smoothly,  and  when  it 
is  vigorous  and  condensed  it  shews  energy  and 
physical  power  of  brain.  Method  implies  a  cer- 
tain power  of  will  ;  in  cases  where  the  faculties 
act  altogether  automatically,  there  is  usually  an 
utter  want  of  method.  This  quality  is  easy  to 
observe,  and  it  is  of  great  value  for  practical  life ; 
its  total  absence  would  indicate  a  condition  of 
mind  incompatible  with  first-class  ability  of  the 
sort  wanted  by  the  framers  of  Examinations. 

It  may  be  asked  whether  that  variety  of  the 
imaginative  faculty,  which  is  called  out  and  tested 
in  an  essay,  is  wanted  in  a  candidate  for  official 
employment,  or  only  in  one  whose  services  we 
hope  to  retain  for  science  or  learning.  I  con- 
sider that,  excepting  in  the  case  of  a  young 
writer  of  striking  excellence,  who  might  be  worth 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.   277 

securing  for  literature  or  science,  the  sort  of 
ability  thus  discovered  is  most  to  be  valued  as 
an  indication  of  capacity  for  administrative  affairs. 
What  a  good  essay  principally  shews  is  a 
readiness  in  putting  on  paper,  in  a  clear  and 
orderly  manner,  a  view  that  presents  itself  on 
applying  the  mind  to  a  given  subject.  This 
is  valuable  for  the  drawing  up  of  a  despatch, 
a  report  or  a  defence  of  a  course  of  proceeding. 
A  good  essay  will  also  shew  some  power  of 
seizing  on  important  points,  and  of  putting 
things  in  new  and  striking  lights.  All  these 
qualities  are  of  great  practical  value  in  official 
life,  but  are  not  necessarily  characteristic  of  an 
aptitude  for  original  research.  It  may  however  be 
well  to  see  that  they  are  not  wanting  in  a  scien- 
tific man.  We  must  not  suppose  that  one  who 
writes  a  fair  essay  with  great  ease  will  be  able  to 
write  a  book.  The  kind  of  qualities  wanted  in 
the  two  cases  are  very  different.  Hazlitt  and 
Lamb  wrote  excellent  essays,  but  never  could 
write  books  which  had  a  definite  purpose.  A  man 
cannot  lay  down  the  scheme  of  a  comprehensive 
work  without  much  tension  and  concentration  of 
mind,  neither  can  he  carry  it  to  an  end  without 
steady  power  of  will.  Of  none  of  these  quali- 
ties docs  a  short  essay  afford  any  sure  indication. 


278     The  Fimctiotis  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

Hitherto  we  have  supposed  the  subjects  pro- 
posed for  essays  to  be  of  a  general  nature,  and 
a  very  limited  time  to  be  allowed  for  their  pro- 
duction, such  being  the  usual  conditions  in  ordi- 
nary practice.  But  these  conditions  are  not 
essential ;  the  subject  of  the  dissertation  required 
may  be  taken  from  the  branch  of  study  which 
the  student  has  been  pursuing,  and  ample  time 
may  be  given.  Changes  such  as  these  would 
furnish  us  with  a  different  kind  of  test ;  one 
which  would  give  us  better  means  of  judging 
of  depth  and  solidity,  but  which  would  not 
discover  readiness  and  versatility  so  well.  To 
look  forward  to  having  to  write  an  essay  which 
shall  embody  some  of  the  views  which  should 
form  themselves  In  the  course  of  reading  has  a 
good  educational  eifTect,  and  as  a  means  of  selec- 
tion this  mode  of  proceeding  offers  many  advan- 
tages, and  more  especially  this.  It  shews  us 
what  the  candidate  can  do  under  the  ordinary 
circumstances  In  which  he  would  be  called  on 
to  write,  or  at  least  under  conditions  less  ex- 
ceptional than  those  In  which  essays  are  usually 
written  In  Examinations. 

If  we  set  a  number  of  young  men  down  to  write 
for  three  hours  without  their  knowing,  until  they 
unfold  the  paper  given  them,  whether  they  are 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection.     279 

to  treat  of  "the  Prince  of  Wales'  visit  to  India," 
or  "the  influence  of  authority  in  matters  of 
opinion,"  we  are  calHng  on  them  to  perform  a 
sort  of  tonr  de  force,  which  is  not  a  trustworthy 
specimen  of  their  powers.  The  special  circum- 
stances under  which  they  are  placed,  tell,  as  we 
have  seen,  to  the  advantage  of  some  as  compared 
with  others  in  virtue  of  peculiarities  of  tem- 
perament which  do  not  correspond  to  differences 
of  intellectual  capacity  of  the  sort  we  want  to 
estimate. 

But  when  the  subject  proposed  arises  out  of 
the  branch  of  learning  to  which  the  student  has 
addressed  himself,  we  can  mark  the  judgment 
shewn  in  selecting  and  storing  up  reflections  as 
well  as  the  comprehensiveness  of  his  survey  of 
the  subject  of  study,  and  his  power  of  writing 
with  method  and  precision.  These  qualities  are 
more  to  be  depended  on  as  evidence  of  the 
mental  calibre  of  the  man,  than  the  readiness  and 
productiveness  of  mind  under  pressure  which  may 
be  displayed  in  an  off-hand  essay. 

The  complicated  question  of  how  much  time 
should  be  allowed  for  answering  a  paper  will 
meet  us  again,  but  thus  much  may  be  said  on  it 
here.  A  short  allowance  of  time  favours  readi- 
ness,   versatility    of  attention,    and    that  kind  of 


2  So     The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

intuitive  perception  of  the  right  things  to  say  or 
to  do  on  the  moment,  which  Dr  Carpenter  would 
class  as  "ideo-motor  action."  These  are  habits  of 
mind  of  great  practical  utility  and  likely  to  bring 
success  in  actual  life  ;  but  while  they  are  by  no 
means  inconsistent  with  the  possession  of  the 
highest  qualities  they  do  not  indicate  them  of 
themselves.  On  the  other  hand,  to  be  pressed 
for  time  paralyses  some  who  might  shew  power 
of  thought.  Hence,  we  have  the  common  im- 
pression, which  is,  in  the  main,  a  correct  one, 
that  in  order  to  discover  the  men  most  likely  to 
do  well  in  active  life  we  should  emj^loy  an  Ex- 
amination aorainst  time — the  Cambridgfe  Mathe- 
matical  Tripos  for  instance — but  to  find  the 
men  most  likely  to  serve  science  we  should 
adopt  one  in  which  abundance  of  time  is  allowed, 
like  that  for  the  Smith's  Prizes.  Some  minds 
are  all  the  better  •  for  the  stimulus  of  pressure, 
while  others  are  driven  by  it  into  a  fever. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  one  or  two  cases 
In  which  a  narrow  limitation  of  the  time  allowed 
for  an  essay  might  give  us  a  wrong  result,  but 
I  would  add  one  remark  which  applies  to  other 
kinds  of  Examinations  as  well.  I  have  observed, 
as  a  constant  symptom  of  young  minds  growing 
into  fertility  and  power,  that  their  best  thoughts 


The  Ftuictions  of  Exami7iations.    Selection.     281 

mostly  come  as  after-thoughts.  An  idea  occurs 
to  them  at  first  in  a  somewhat  bare  or  im- 
perfect form,  and  when  they  review  their  work, 
some  valuable  extension,  or  necessary  qualifica- 
tion, or  happy  illustration,  is  suggested.  We  see 
the  same  thing  in  translation — the  word  that  is 
interlined  on  revision  is  often  that  which  shews 
that  the  writer  has  caught  the  point — and  after 
solving  a  mathematical  problem  some  simpler 
process  may  strike  the  student  wdien  he  reads 
over  his  performance.  What  the  student  has 
said  or  done  in  his  first  draft  remains  by  him 
without  his  knowing  it,  while  his  attention  passes 
on  to  other  matter.  "Unconscious  cerebration" 
is  taking  place  all  the  time,  and  when  he  recurs 
to  w^hat  he  has  written,  he  finds  that  his  ideas 
have  grown  and  his  conceptions  have  become 
more  exact.  This  perfecting  power  marks  minds 
of  a  high  order,  and  we  should  be  careful  to 
give  an  opportunity  for  its  display ;  whereas  if 
scanty  time  be  allowed  for  revision,  an  advan- 
tage is  given  to  men  of  quite  a  different  type — • 
men  who  never  improve  upon  their  first  ideas 
— with  whom  the  w^ork  "  is  done  when  it  is 
done."  The  performances  of  such  may  often  be 
better  than  the  first  draft  of  an  aljler  man's 
writing,   but    inferior   to    the    revised   copy.     Of 


282      The  Functions  of  Exammatio?ts.    Selection. 

course  candidates  should  be  given  to  understand 
how  much  more  important  quaHty  is  than  quan- 
tity, or  they  may  use  the  extra  time  in  covering 
more  paper. 

But  besides  affording  very  ample  time,  I 
would  also  allow  candidates  while  writing  their 
essay  in  the  Examination  Room  to  have  ac- 
cess to  some  standard  authorities  on  their 
subject.  What  these  should  be  would  rest  with 
the  Examiners.  This  proposal  needs  some  re- 
commendation because  to  many  it  will  seem 
novel.  It  is  a  mode  of  carrying  out  the  principle 
above  stated  of  making  the  candidate  write  in 
an  Examination  under  circumstances  as  little 
exceptional  as  possible.  What  I  mean  will  be 
most  clearly  understood  from  an  example.  Let 
us  suppose  that  students  have  been  engaged  in 
studying  the  Language,  Literature,  and  History 
of  Greece.  The  Examination  of  such  might 
comprise  an  essay  paper,  to  which  a  whole 
day  might  be  given.  The  subject  might  be : 
*'  The  changes  in  the  national  character  of  the 
Athenians  between  the  times  of  Pericles  and 
Demosthenes."  The  candidates  should  then  have 
access  to  the  texts  of  the  Greek  Historians, 
Dramatists,  and  Orators,  and  also  to  works  on 
Chronology  and  Antiquities.     One   effect  of  this 


The  Functions  of  Exammations.    Select io7t.     28 


o 


plan  would  be  to  induce  candidates  to  read 
their  Greek  authors  in  a  less  scholastic  man- 
ner, and  more  in  the  way  in  which  they  would 
be  read  by  a  literary  man  engaged  in  Greek 
History.  They  would  want  to  know  their  way 
about  Thucydides  and  Demosthenes,  but  they 
would  not  be  overburdened  by  having  to  re- 
collect particulars.  When  they  noted  a  valuable 
fact  or  observation  they  would  turn  it  over  to 
their  "  Index  Memories,"  and  be  able  to  lay 
their  hands  on  the  passage  which  contained  it 
if  they  should  want  it.  No  man  in  writing  a 
book  would  be  justified  in  quoting  from  memory, 
however  confident  he  may  feel  of  remembering 
rightly.  Authors  no  doubt  did  so  in  old  times, 
when  books  were  harder  to  come  by,  and  vast 
trouble  has  been  caused  to  their  editors  in  con- 
sequence. There  is  now  no  object  in  forcing 
men  to  carry  a  number  of  details  in  their  heads. 
By  this  plan,  moreover,  the  Examiner  obtains 
a  further  advantage.  The  range  of  the  subjects 
which  can  be  given  for  essay's  is  very  much 
extended  ;  for  there  are  many  points  about 
which  candidates  could  not  write,  without  the 
help  I  propose  to  offer,  even  if  the  subjects 
were  taken  from  their  favourite  branch  of  study, 
because    so    much    would    turn    on    questions    of 


2  84     The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 

fact  or  on  authority.  It  is  one  of  the  evils  of 
the  common  system  that  since  facts  cannot  be 
made  of  great  importance  in  an  essay,  those  who 
look  to  the  essay  as  their  strong  point,  under- 
value accuracy  in  point  of  facts,  as  compared  with 
ingenuity  of  remark. 

This  method  of  proceeding  is  as  applicable  to 
some  branches  of  science  as  it  is  to  literature. 
The  Dissertations  required  in  the  Smith's  Prize 
Examination  at  Cambridge,  bear  on  subjects 
that  have  been  studied,  and  ample  time  is  allowed. 
Access  to  authorities  is  not  permitted,  and  from 
the  nature  of  the  subjects  given  may  not  be  very 
necessary,  but  the  choice  of  subjects  vrould  be 
larger  if  certain  books  of  reference,  such  especially 
as  give  information  on  the  history  of  science, 
or  on  the  magnitudes  of  the  quantities  that  come 
under  consideration,  could  be  allowed. 

It  may  be  asked  whether  there  is  not  more 
likelihood  of  the  matter  of  an  essay  being  drawn 
from  the  tutor,  when  the  topic  chosen  is  thus 
taken  from  a  specified  branch  of  study.  I  should 
answer  that  the  Examiner  has  better  means  of 
judging  of  what  is  original  in  this  case  than  in 
that  of  a  "general"  subject.  He  will  have  ac- 
quainted himself  with  the  views  of  the  principal 
writers  on  the  point  he  selects,  and  he  will  expect 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection.     2  85 

to  meet  with  these  in  the  productions  that  come 
before  him.  He  will  give  the  candidates  credit 
nevertheless,  if  he  finds  that  they  have  understood 
what  they  have  read,  and  have  selected  the  sound- 
est views  and  weio-htiest  considerations.  He  will 
not  expect  much  originality,  still  less  will  he 
wish  to  force  candidates  to  pretend  to  it.  If  he 
should  meet  with  what  strikes  him  as  an  original 
view,  it  will  probably  be  really  the  candidate's 
own,  for  the  tutor  would  not  be  likely  to  keep 
to  himself  any  valuable  views  on  History  and 
Science,  because  these  would  gain  him  considera- 
tion by  being  made  public,  while  smart  sayings, 
or  paradoxical  views,  which  might  be  brought 
to  bear  on  subjects  of  a  "general"  nature,  would 
be  of  no  great  value  for  any  other  purpose. 

Essays  written  altogether  at  leisure,  such  as 
those  which  are  sent  in  to  compete  for  Uni- 
versity prizes,  are  also  good  tests  of  ability, 
but  they  hardly  fall  under  the  head  of  Exami- 
nations. 

It  may  be  said  that  practical  inconvenience 
would  be  found  in  supplying  access  to  books  of 
reference  if  the  number  of  candidates  were  large; 
but  I  do  not  contemplate  employing  the  method 
under  review  except  for  distinguishing  one  or  two 
out  of  a  few  candidates  who  have  been  already 


2S6     The  FiLnctions  of  Examinations.    Selectio7i. 

selected  by  some  previous  process.  As  far  as 
my  experience  goes,  the  effect  of  an  English 
essay  in  an  Examination  is  this :  A  few,  perhaps 
one-tenth  of  the  candidates,  write  well  ;  the  essay 
brings  their  special  qualities  under  notice,  and 
gives  valuable  information  about  them ;  while 
the  rest  may  be  grouped  as  "  fair,"  "  indifferent," 
and  "bad."  In  these  groups  the  evidence  fur- 
nished by  the  essay  usually  agrees  pretty  well 
with  what  would  be  inferred  from  the  rest  of  a 
General  Examination,  but  among  those  who  do 
poorly  are  found  a  few  from  whom  (judging  from 
their  other  w^ork)  we  should  expect  something 
better,  and  here,  the  negative  effect  above  spoken 
of,  is  of  practical  value.  Hence,  for  the  purposes 
in  view,  there  would  be  no  need  to  admit  any 
but  candidates  of  superior  attainments  to  compete 
by  means  of  essays  in  the  way  proposed. 

I  f  I  have  dwelt  at  what  may  seem  unnecessary 
length  on  the  subject  of  the  essay  as  a  mode 
of  Examination,  it  is  because  it  may  assist  us 
in  solving  a  considerable  difficulty  that  will  meet 
us  when  we  have  to  deal  with  the  question  of 
Fellowships.  It  seems  likely  that  two  classes 
at  least  of  such  emoluments  will  be  required  : 
the  one,  as  pure  rewards  for  University  success, 
involving  no  duties:  the  other,  for  those  who  shall 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection.     287 

be  engaged  in  education  or  who  are  likely  to  do 
good  service  in  the  way  of  research.  There  may 
be  a  difficulty  in  finding  opportunities  for  some  of 
the  latter  class  to  shew  their  qualifications,  and 
if  so,  an  essay  written  under  the  conditions  I 
have  just  named,  seems  the  least  objectionable 
kind  of  Examination.  I  only  state  this  now,  as 
an  apology  for  having  lingered  so  long  upon  the 
point :  the  consideration  of  the  mode  of  selection 
which  should  be  adopted  for  Fellowships  and 
Scholarships  will  require  a  chapter  to  itself. 

Connected  with  this  power  of  engendering 
and  expressing  ideas  which  has  occupied  us  so 
long,  but  different  from  it  in  very  essential 
points,  is  that  of  reasoning.  When  we  have 
considered  this  matter  we  shall  have  finished 
our  rough  survey  of  the  chief  intellectual  quali- 
ties which  can  be  revealed  by  Examinations. 
The  reasoning  power  may  be  described  generally 
as  that  capacity  whereby  the  logical  sequence  of 
the  steps  in  a  train  of  argument  is  apprehended 
and  the  investigation  followed  up  to  its  con- 
clusion. A  thinker  may  hit  on  a  valuable 
thouijht  without  beinof  able  to  tell  how  he  has 
arrived  at  it.  He  probably  went  through  some 
unconscious  process  of  mind,  but  the  idea  seemed 
to    flash    upon    him    all    at    once — just    as    the 


288      The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 

answer   to  an  enigma   comes   on   a  sudden   into 
the  head. 

Moreover,  a  man  may  have  much  fertiHty  of 
idea,  and  may  now  and  then  hght  on  a  new  truth, 
and  yet  be  very  averse  to  going  through  a  pro- 
cess of  proof  to  estabhsh  its  certainty.  He  may 
be  unequal  to  the  sustained  tension  of  mind 
required  to  do  this;  he  may  not  have  the  pa- 
tience and  the  knowledre  of  the  laws  of  thought 
which  are  needed,  or  the  habit  of  applying  them. 
A  speculative  thinker  is  to  a  systematic  reasoner 
what  an  exploring  party,  which  makes  a  dash  into 
a  new  tract  of  country,  is  to  the  regular  force 
which,  acting  perhaps  on  the  news  thus  obtained, 
advances  in  regular  form  into  the  region,  occupy- 
ing station  after  station,  and  annexing  the  new 
domain.  Those  who  are  disinclined  to  put  their 
own  thoughts  into  logical  order  would  be  still 
more  averse  to  going  through  the  demonstra- 
tion of  a  known  theorem  :  they  may  have  little 
perception  of  logical  sequence,  no  pleasure  in 
markinp-  refined  reasoninor  or  scrutinisinij  the  va- 
lidity  of  some  novel  mode  of  proof,  and  they  are 
unwillincf  to  encounter  the  mental  fatigue  attend- 
ant  on  this,  to  them,  unattractive  kind  of  labour. 
On  the  other  hand,  those  who  find  a  pleasure 
in  following  out  a   demonstration,   who    compre- 


The  Ftmdions  of  Examinations.     Selection.   289 

hcnd  thoroughly  what  Is  requisite  to  constitute 
proof,  and  what  is  the  degree  of  certainty  which 
can  be  attained  in  their  subject,  may  have  no  in- 
vention, no  happy  anticipation  of  what  they  are 
coming  to,  and  if  they  ever  do  reach  anything 
new,  they  get  at  it  by  travelhng  along  what  the 
Germans  call  the  carriao-e-road  of  thou";ht. 

By  means  of  Examinations  we  may  test  this 
power  of  reasoning.  Sometimes  it  is  exerted  by 
the  candidate  in  the  act  of  answering  the  ques- 
tions put  to  him,  sometimes  it  has  been  exerted 
previously,  and  is  only  recalled  into  partial  opera- 
tion in  the  Examination  itself 

A  person  must  of  course  proceed  by  steps  of 
reasoning  in  order  to  solve  any  problem  in  natural 
philosophy,  but  it  is  not  in  the  process  of  reason- 
ing that  the  difficulty  lies.  When  the  student 
has  got  hold  of  a  right  physical  conception,  and 
the  right  way  to  look  at  a  case  in  order  to  bring 
it  under  some  of  his  general  theorems,  then  he 
proceeds  to  the  proof  by  steps  which  are  quite 
familiar  to  him.  The  student's  ingenuity  and  re- 
source are  well  tested  by  a  problem  paper,  but 
to  see  his  appreciation  of  reasoning  we  must 
mark  how  he  goes  through  the  steps  of  a  demon- 
stration. Explanations  of  phenomena  and  proofs 
of  principles  or  of  theorems,  (asked  for  in  such 
L.  19 


290   The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 


a  form  as  to  preclude  their  being  drawn  straight 
from  the  book,)  are  sometimes  more  effective 
than  problems  for  trying  the  strength  of  the 
student's  head.  Indeed,  it  is  beginning  to  be 
found  that  skill  in  solving  problems  is  not  an 
unfailinof  test  of  natural  cleverness  or  thorouc^h 
comprehension  of  the  science,  but  that  it  may 
come  from  a  special  knack  acquired  by  long  prac- 
tice and  by  confining  the  attention  to  subjects 
fertile  in  examples.  In  some  sciences,  Ethics, 
Law,  and  Political  Economy,  cases  may  be  given 
for  the  application  of  principles ;  these  take  the 
place  of  problems  in  Mathematics.  The  student 
to  reach  his  conclusion  must  go  through  the  pro- 
cess of  reasoning  in  the  Examination  room,  and 
thus  such  performances  afford  good  means  of 
judging  of  his  logical  power. 

The  reasoning  produced  in  proof  of  some 
general  proposition  is  rarely  the  fruit  of  the  indi- 
vidual's own  brain,  but  is  valuable  as  the  result 
of  stored-up  previous  labour,  which  shews  that 
he  has,  at  some  time  before,  exercised  the  quali- 
ties wanted  for  mastering  a  train  of  thought. 
He  carries  it  in  his  mind  in  virtue  of  seeing 
the  logical  dependence  of  the  links  on  each  other, 
and  memory,  except  in  the  case  of  a  very  artificial 
proof  (and  such   artificial  demonstrations  are  not 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection.   291 

well  suited  for  Examinations)  is  only  concerned  in 
furnishinof  a  recollection  of  the  wneral  course  to 
be  taken.  The  reasoning  power  must  have  been 
efficiently  exerted  when  the  theorem  was  learnt, 
and  this  past  work  forms  a  fund  on  which  the 
student  can  draw  for  Examination  purposes  by 
merely  refreshing  his  memory. 

We  see  then,  that  the  reproduction  of  a  de- 
monstration calls  out  a  different  faculty  from 
that  which  is  exercised  in  applying  its  results 
to  examples.  These  two  sorts  of  power  supple- 
ment one  another,  and  for  an  Examination  to 
be  complete  it  should  provide  for  eliciting  both 
kinds.  The  "  moral  elements  "  involved  differ  in 
the  two  cases  ;  in  struggling  with  a  problem  or 
a  puzzling  question  the  student  is  buoyed  uj) 
with  the  hope  of  getting  to  the  result,  and  of 
having  a  solution  to  shew ;  he  is  stimulated  by 
the  spirit  of  pursuit  or  of  contest.  But  to  work 
steadily  through  a  given  piece  of  hard  reasoning, 
where  every  step  has  to  be  made  good  as  he 
goes  on,  and  which  yields  him  no  trophy  of 
triumph,  requires  a  greater  fund  of  character  and 
mental  endurance — ^just  as  a  harassing  march  is 
more  trying  to  the  moral  stamina  of  troops  than 
an  assault. 

No  doubt  a  student  before  producing  the  dc- 

19 — 2 


292    The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

monstration  of  a  subject  will  want  to  run  his  eye 
over  it.  However  thoroughly  the  matter  may  have 
been  assimilated,  it  can  hardly  be  produced  with 
the  great  rapidity  now  required  in  an  Examina- 
tion unless  it  be  fresh  in  the  mind.  Hence  some 
who  are  always  on  the  look-out  for  an  occasion  to 
cry  "cram"  will  do  so  here.  But  the  knowledge 
that  can  be  rendered  fit  for  production  by  a  few 
hours  of  review  is  not  "cram" — it  must  have  been 
assimilated.  The  picture  may  have  got  dingy,  but 
it  only  wants  a  coat  of  varnish  to  be  as  bright  as 
ever.  The  knowledge  may  again  lose  its  fresh- 
ness, but  the  structure  is  permanent ;  the  habits 
of  mind  and  ways  of  viewing  things  formed  by 
the  study  are  of  lasting  value.  The  barrister  will 
need  to  turn  to  his  text  books  and  the  cases  in 
point,  before  going  into  Court,  but  no  one  who 
is  not  a  lawyer  will  be  any  the  wiser  for  doing  so. 
We  must,  however,  both  in  framing  schemes 
of  Examination  and  in  carrying  them  out,  always 
recollect  that  attempts  will  be  made  to  simulate 
the  operation  of  the  qualities  which  are  supposed 
to  be  indicated  by  what  is  produced  in  Exami- 
nation. It  may  be  that  the  course  of  reasoning 
produced  is  a  mere  transfer  to  paper  of  what  has 
been  learnt  from  a  book  by  rote,  and  that  the  logi- 
cal processes  involved  have  never  been  performed 


The  Ftmdions  of  Examinations.     Selection.   293 

by  the  student's  mind.  This  happens  when  the 
pupil  learns  propositions  of  Euclid  by  heart  and 
writes  them  out,  as  candidates  will  sometimes  do 
in  Pass  Examinations,  This  practice  is  easily 
baffled  by  enunciating  the  theorem  in  a  slightl)' 
different  manner  from  that  given  in  the  text. 
With  Pass  Examinations  I  am  not  at  present  con- 
cerned ;  they  will  come  before  us  hereafter.  Some- 
thing of  the  same  kind  is  now  and  then  attempted 
with  isolated  propositions  in  the  higher  Exami- 
nations, but  the  attempt  very  rarely  succeeds,  and 
if  ever  it  does  so,  it  is  only  in  the  case  of  those 
who  are  struggling  to  get  through  at  the  tail  of  an 
Honour  list,  that  is  to  say,  where  the  Examination, 
though  competitive  in  form,  is  really  a  qualifying 
Examination  only.  In  the  hypothetical  case  we 
are  dealing  with,  I  suppose  the  object  to  be  to 
discriminate  between  men  of  considerable  ability, 
and  such  men  would  not  engage  in  these  prac- 
tices. We  may  expect  them  to  be  above  any- 
thing of  the  kind  :  besides  the  inducement  to 
learn  what  they  did  not  understand  would  hardly 
exist  with  them,  because  they  might  always  em- 
ploy their  time  to  more  advantage  in  learning 
something  additional  wliicli  they  could  properl\- 
master.  Students,  no  doubt,  comprehend  what 
they  learn  in  different  degrees,  they  may  be  more 


2  94   The  Functions  of  Exanibiations.     Selection. 

or  less  clear,  both  in  their  conceptions,  and  in  per- 
ceiving the  logical  validity  of  the  steps  and  the 
necessity  of  the  various  qualifications  which  should 
accompany  their  statements.  A  haziness  of  view 
can  usually  be  detected  by  an  Examiner;  very 
frequently  it  is  shewn  by  the  omission  or  imperfect 
enunciation  of  the  above-named  qualifications,  and 
if,  in  putting  the  questions,  a  slight  alteration  be 
made  from  the  supposition^  under  which  the 
theorem  is  worked  out  in  the  book,  this  im- 
perfection of  knowledge  will  be  brought  to  light. 
It  is  sometimes  well  to  append  a  question  or 
two  on  the  nature  of  the  proof  or  on  points 
Avhich  offer  difficulty,  and  it  may  be  advisable  to 
have  it  stated  that  if  such  questions  are  not  at- 
tempted, little  or  no  credit  will  be  given  for 
reproducing  the  demonstration  of  the  theorem. 

What  I  have  just  said  applies  chiefly  to  an 
Examination  in  the  exact  sciences.  In  moral 
science  and  its  kindred  subjects  a  far  greater 
difficulty  presents  itself. 

These  subjects  must  in  great  part  be  dealt 
wqth  historically.  Where  people  are  not  pretty 
well  agreed  as  to  the  fundamental  propositions,  or 
as  to  the  conclusions  reached  in  a  branch  of 
knowledge,  the  student  will  generally  be  called  on 
to  give  the  views  of  certain  writers.     A  long  list 


The  Functions  of  Exaniinalions,     Sclcclion.   295 

of  books  may  be  named,  the  student  cannot  ob- 
tain a  precise  knowledge  of  all,  and  he  will  look 
to  his  tutor  to  provide  him  with  abstracts  of  the 
tenets  of  certain  schools  of  philosophers  and  an 
outline  of  the  mode  in  which  they  arrived  at  their 
conclusions.  Here  the  logical  element  is  blended 
with  an  historical  one,  the  phraseology  and  the 
ideas  are  usually  less  precise,  and  the  sequence 
of  the  steps  less  immediate,  than  in  the  more 
exact  sciences  :  there  is  also,  frequently,  a  large 
proportion  of  definitive  or  formulated  statement 
which  may  be  committed  to  memory. 

The  subjects  are  usually  so  extensive  that  it  is 
impossible  to  require  the  exact  reproduction  of 
the  reasoning  of  the  writer,  in  the  close  way  in 
which  a  mathematical  theorem  is  reproduced — and 
an  abstract  or  outline  of  proof  is  all  that  can  be 
expected.  If  the  student  drew  this  up  for  himself, 
and  the  teacher  confined  his  assistance  to  eivine 
a  clear  insight  into  the  writer's  meaning,  all  would 
be  well,  but  unfortunately  a  strong  temptation  is 
held  out  to  those  who  are  preparing  students 
for  Examination  to  do  this  work  of  diofestinnr  for 
them  ;  thus  the  pupil  is  furnished  with  the  results 
of  thought  without  thinking,  which,  as  Mr  Mill 
observes  in  the  passage  quoted  early  in  this 
book,  is  a  very  enervating  process,  and  the  Ex- 


296    TJie  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 

aminer  is  at  a  loss  to  discover  how  far  the  pupil's 
answers  represent  a  process  of  reasoning  previous- 
ly gone  through  by  himself,  and  how  far  they  are 
due  only  to  his  remembering  what  has  been  told 
him,  Mr  Todhunter  in  his  "Conflict  of  Studies" 
observes  that  it  would  be  convenient  sometimes  in 
Mathematics  to  ask  for  the  outline  of  a  proof  only, 
but  he  remarks  that  if  this  practice  became  com- 
mon, such  outlines  would  be  prepared  by  the  tutors, 
and  the  students  would  not  go  through  the  pro- 
cesses which  we  want,  and  which  we  give  them 
credit  for  having  performed. 

In  mental  science  there  is  little  answerinof 
to  the  separate  detailed  propositions  of  natural 
philosophy,  and  much  of  which  the  pupil  can 
only  be  asked  to  give  a  general  account.  Skilled 
Examiners  can  often  distinguish  tutorial  manu- 
script from  the  student's  own  work,  especially 
if  they  can  employ  viva  voce  Examination.  But 
though  spurious  knowledge  may  be  detected  now 
and  then,  still  if  the  profits  be  large  the  manu- 
facture of  the  counterfeit  may  be  carried  on 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  throw  discredit  on  the 
results  of  an  Examination,  and  I  must  therefore 
conclude  that  this  subject,  whatever  be  its  educa- 
tional or  intrinsic  value,  is,  like  those  which  con- 
sist mainly  of  facts,  ill-adapted  to  form  the  staple 


The  Ftmctions  of  Exaininatio7is.     Selection.    297 

of  a  competitive  Examination,  Wc  must  re- 
ward proficiency  in  it,  for  the  study  of  it  will 
be  given  up  if  wc  do  not ;  but  we  should 
not  make  it  the  wrestling-  ground  for  youthful 
wits  in  general,  both  for  the  reason  above  given 
and  because,  though  this  science  may  be  well 
suited  for  a  few  robust  and  peculiarly  constituted 
intellects,  yet  mental  physiologists  seem  pretty  well 
agreed  that  for  most  young  minds  introspection,  or 
an  attempt  to  view,  as  from  without,  the  operation 
of  their  own  brains,  is  positively  dangerous.  The 
few  might  shew  their  attainments  by  writing  or 
by  teaching  well,  or,  if  something  of  the  nature 
of  an  Examination  be  wanted,  by  composing 
an  essay  under  the  conditions  recommended 
above. 

Further,  the  style  in  which  demonstrations  are 
reproduced  tells  us  something  of  the  powers  and 
habits  of  mind  of  the  candidate.  If  he  sa^-s  all 
that  is  essential,  and  nothing  that  is  not  so — if  he 
can  put  tersely  what  he  enunciates  or  what  he  con- 
cludes— if  his  mastery  of  expression  is  such  that 
he  can  always  find  words  to  say  exactly  what  he 
wishes — if  he  is  never  forced  to  suppress  some  qua- 
lification or  to  append  what  is  unnecessary  by  the 
exigencies  of  his  sentence — then  we  may  be  sure 
that  we  have  to  do  with  a  man  of  head,  and  with 


298    The  Functions  of  Examitiations.     Selection. 

one  whose  ability  is  not  confined  to  the  special 
matter  in  view — that  he  is  not  merely  a  mathema- 
tician, for  instance,  or  a  moral  philosopher, — but 
a  man  who  is  able  to  think  distinctly,  and  who  is 
likely  to  speak  plainly  and  act  vigorously  in  any 
circumstances  in  which  he  may  be  placed.  To 
bring  out  this  capacity  it  is  essential  that  the 
candidate  should  not  be  over-hurried.  "  Mathe- 
matical style"  is  an  expression  constantly  used  in 
old  writers  about  Examinations,  but  it  is  com- 
plained that  in  the  papers  sent  up  even  by  the 
best  men  now,  excellence  in  this  way  is  less  con- 
spicuous than  it  formerly  was,  and  the  Tripos  at 
Cambridge  has  thereby  lost  a  part  of  its  efficiency 
for  drawing  out  the  sort  of  ability  likely  to  make 
its  mark  in  life.  When  rapidity  is  everything, 
the  quality  which  a  student  values  most  is  short- 
ness. "My  tutor,"  one  w^ill  say  to  another,  "has 
shewn  me  a  way  of  proving  that  in  half  the 
time."  Clearness  and  naturalness  of  procedure  in 
a  method  of  proof  win  it  less  favour  with  the 
student  than  brevity.  He  wants  to  write  as  little 
as  possible  consistently  with  getting  full  marks, 
and  the  qualifications  needed  to  a  statement  are 
often  hinted  at  in  an  epithet  rather  than  ex- 
pressed. Thus  there  is  a  danger  of  our  coming  to 
a  sort  of  telegraphic  code  in  our  mode  of  answer- 


The  Functions  of  Exaniinations.     Selection.   299 

ing",  and  even  of  this  kind  of  conventional  short- 
hand affecting  the  style  of  scientific  literature. 

If  we  want  then  to  have  the  reasoning  power 
of  our  candidates  properly  cultivated,  and  fully  dis- 
played in  Examination,  I  must  urge  the  importance 
of  allowing  the  candidates  ample  time,  and  of  leav- 
ing the  Examiner  at  liberty  to  frame  his  view  from 
all  that  comes  before  him.      He  may  of  course  use 
marks  for  each  question,  as   he  likes,  to  aid  his 
memory;  but  should  not  be  bound  by  them  or  feel 
in   any  way   "under   contract"   with    the   student 
to  give  him  credit  for  every  scrap  that  is  correct^. 
We  limited  our  enquiry  at  starting  to  those 
constituents  of  ability  which  the  framers  of  Ex- 
aminations have  in  view,  and  which  Examinations 
test.     This  enquiry  is  now  at  an  end — we  find  that 
we  may  expect  to  find  power  of  attention,  memory 
in  various  shapes,  delicacy  of  perception,  concentra- 
tion, imagination  and  reasoning  power,  and  that 
Examinations  will  help  us  to  judge  of  how  far 
these  qualities  exist.    We  see  moreover  that  behind 
all  these  qualities  lies  something  which  a  mental 

^  Wlien  Examinations  are  used  scholastically,  that  is,  to  see  how 
students  have  learnt,  we  limit  time  in  order  to  test  readiness  and  thorough 
preparation.  One  who  knows  well  what  he  has  learnt  ought  to  have  an 
advantage  over  one  who  has  to  puzzle  it  out.  It  is  also  true  that  if  Ex- 
aminers are  not  bound  to  render  marks,  and  have  no  personal  interest 
in  choosing  the  best  men,  they  may  be  tempted  to  do  their  work  less 
thoroughly  than  when  their  view  of  each  question  is  recorded. 


300   The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection. 

physiologist  would  call  massiveness  or  robustness  of 
brain,  and  which  we  call  energy  of  mind — of 
this  so  far  as  it  is  brought  out  in  dealing  with 
books  or  ideas  we  can  judge  fairly,  we  see  that 
knowledge  has  been  got,  and  know  that  brainwork 
must  have  been  done  to  get  it — and  in  addition 
we  note  indications  of  strength  or  feebleness  of 
will :  we  can  find  out  from  a  set  of  papers  pretty 
well  whether  a  man  knows  his  own  mind  or  not. 

But  lest  we  should  mistake  the  knowledge  of 
a  part  for  the  whole,  we  must  cast  our  eyes  over 
the  range  of  qualities  which  Examinations  leave 
unexplored. 

On  so  doing  we  at  once  see  another  variety  of 
that  mental  energy  just  spoken  of,  or  rather  another 
side  of  its  sphere  of  work:  we  learn  nothing  of  it 
when  it  is  turned  to  dealing  with  action  or  with 
men.  Indeed  all  qualities  connected  with  action, 
and  all  that  involve  sympathy  with  human  beings, 
or  the  power  of  influencing  them,  all  that  have  to 
do  with  tact,  address,  and  personal  manner,  lie  out- 
side the  range  of  our  testing  apparatus.  Most 
moral  qualities  do  so  also.  We  cannot  even  tell 
whether  to  refer  an  individual  to  one  or  the  other 
of  the  two  types,  which  are  the  foci  round  which 
a  large  portion  of  mankind  is  grouped.  We 
cannot  see  whether  he  is  likely,  in  any  given  posi- 


The  Fu7ictions  of  Examinations.     Select  ion.  301 

tion,  to  do  as  much  or  as  little  in  the  way  of 
duty  as  he  possibly  can. 

It  is  true  that  a  student  must  have  done  work 
to  get  his  learning  together,  but  it  may  have  been 
done  under  something  approaching  to  compulsion, 
either  that  of  masters,  or  of  an  overwhelming  in- 
ducement. We  can  hardly  guess  at  all,  especially 
from  a  single  Examination,  whether  the  work  has 
been  done  willingly  and  conscientiously,  or  by  a 
person  of  good  parts,  but  no  intellectual  tastes, 
who  is  looking  forward  to  winning  a  prize,  in 
order  to  indemnify  himself  for  his  drudgery  by 
future  advantages. 

Mr  W.  Hopkins  once  attracted  much  attention 
by  his  evidence  as  to  the  blameless  lives  led  by 
those  who,  under  his  hands,  had  reached  high 
University  Honours  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  but 
that  to  work  freely  for  a  reward  three  years 
distant,  and  that  too  where  society,  with  all  its 
solicitations  and  enjoyments,  is  close  at  hand,  is,  in 
itself,  an  evidence  of  moral  steadfastness  and  self 
command ;  but  then  this  cjuarantee  comes  not 
only  from  what  is  shewn  in  the  Examination,  but 
from  the  circumstances  under  which  the  knowledge 
has  been  acquired.  It  is  indeed  hardly  likely  that 
a  person  could  master  the  great  mass  of  matter 
required  for  the  Mathematical  Tripos,  if  he  were 


302    The  Fitnctions  of  Examinations.     Selectiojt. 

liable  to  irregularity  of  conduct,  but  candidates  for 
scholarships  who  have  worked  well  under  strict  dis- 
cipline at  school  sometimes  prove  unequal  to  being 
their  own  masters  in  the  way  wanted  at  college. 

Competitive  Examinations  leave  us  most  in 
the  dark  about  those  qualities  which  find  their 
sphere  in  active  life,  but  they  also  fail  us  in 
one  important  point  when  w^e  want  to  select 
men  to  fill  posts  intended  for  the  "endowment 
of  research."  It  is  most  important  to  know 
whether  persons  have  a  taste  for  their  study, 
and  about  this  Examinations  hardly  tell  us  any- 
thing. We  meet  with  cases  of  hard-headed  men 
who  obtain  high  degrees  in  a  course  which  they 
select  as  offering  them  the  most  favourable  field, 
but  who  never  care  to  open  a  book  in  their 
branch  of  study  afterwards.  Their  object  has 
been  to  win  a  place  in  the  front,  and  they  have 
done  so,  as  one  of  the  conditions  for  future  get- 
tine  on  :  the  Examination  was  one  of  the  hurdles 
in  their  race,  and  they  cleared  it,  but  they  may 
care  nothing  whatever  for  classics  or  mathe- 
matics or  whatever  science  they  have  taken  up. 
Only,  let  me  say,  that,  as  a  man  must  go  a 
little  out  of  his  way  to  acquire  a  proficiency  in  a 
branch  of  natural  or  experimental  science,  there  is 
the  greater  probability  that  a  proficient  in  these 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection.  30;; 


subjects  will  have  a  g-cnuine  taste  for  them.  This 
silence  of  Examinations,  as  to  tastes,  prevents  our 
placing  reliance  upon  them  as  a  means  of  selectinf^f- 
those  who  should  be  admitted  to  hold  *' endow- 
ments for  research,"  although  to  have  done  well 
in  educational  Examinations  must  be  regarded 
favourably  as  an  evidence  of  general  power. 

It  niust  be  remarked  that  if  we  get  wrong 
results  by  trusting  to  Examinations  it  is  usually 
because  we  use  them  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other 
modes  of  judging — much  as  an  invalid  who  pins 
his  faith  on  a  new  nostrum  will  sometimes  eive 
up  taking  ordinary  precautions.  We  have  all  the 
means  of  forming  an  opinion  that  we  had  before 
Examinations  were  introduced,  and  if  these  were 
used  with  care  and  method  we  mii^ht  oret  near 
the  truth  about  some  of  the  moral  and  personal 
qualities  of  candidates.  Insurance  companies  get 
information  that  they  can  trust  as  to  the  wa)s  of 
living  of  applicants  for  policies,  and  some  use 
might  be  made  of  testimony  as  to  the  wa}^  in  which 
students  have  learned,  and  as  to  their  behaviour. 
But  the  fact  is  that  the  public  are  afraid  of  the 
reintroduction  of  the  patronage  system,  and  would 
cling  to  Examinations  "pure  and  simple"  as  a  safe- 
guard even  if  they  were  less  to  be  trusted  than  they 
are.   I  need  not  consider  further  the  qualities  about 


304  The  Functions  of  Examiiiations.     Selection. 

which  Examinations  do  not  enable  us  to  judge, 
but  I  must  recur  to  one  or  two  disturbing  causes 
which  sometimes  interfere  with  their  operation 
where  they  might  be  expected  to  be  trustworthy. 

I  have  said  that  in  certain  subjects,  classics 
and  mathematics  especially,  persons  usually  reach 
a  kind  of  limit,  not  of  knowledge  exactly,  but 
of  power  of  using  the  knowledge — just  as  they 
reach  a  limit  of  skill  in  playing  on  a  musical  in- 
strument— some  are  long  in  reaching  this  limit, 
and  there  may  be  some  who  go  on  improving  all 
their  lives;  but  in  general,  one  who  after  the  usual 
course  of  study  is  a  second  or  third  rate  scholar  or 
mathematician,  as  shewn  by  Examination,  would 
get  but  little  more  general  grasp  of  his  subject 
by  further  reading,  although  he  may  grow  clearer 
as  to  some  points,  especially  if  he  be  engaged  in 
teaching,  and,  of  course,  may  become  acquainted 
with  fresh  books  on  his  subject.  The  limits  so 
reached  are  important  elements  in  judging  of  his 
ability,  but  the  difficulty  is  to  know  whether  a 
candidate  in  an  open  Examination  has  reached 
this  limit  or  not.  We  do  not  know  how  long 
each  candidate  has  been  engaged  in  study,  and 
some  candidates  may  have  been  specially  trained, 
so  that  the  metal  may  have  received  all  the  work- 
ing it  will  take,  while    others    have  had    only   a 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.    305 


general  education,  and  may  improve  much  in  their 
special  line. 

If  we  must  needs  decide  by  a  single  Examina- 
tion, we  can  only  make  a  guess  about  probable 
improvement,  we  learn  nothing  of  the  direction  in 
which  the-  student's  mind  is  moving,  and  nothing 
of  its  rate  of  motion.  We  see  it  but  at  one  point. 
If  we  can  test  the  progress  of  students  as  we  do 
in  a  College  course,  year  after  year,  we  learn  some- 
thing of  their  mental  changes:  some  improve  in 
grasp  of  a  subject  and  in  general  power  through- 
out, while  some  remain  stationary,  and  some  de- 
cline. But  an  Examiner  has  seldom  the  oppor- 
tunity of  making  more  than  one  observation,  and 
the  testimony  of  teachers  is  inadmissible  or  not  to 
be  eot,  and  so  it  will  be  well  to  note  one  or  two 
characteristics  of  the  progressive  and  stationary 
conditions. 

The  following  symptoms  usually  indicate  a 
progressive  condition  of  the  student.  We  judge 
most  fLivourably  when  he  does  steadily  well  in 
the  earlier  parts  of  his  subject  and  shews  decided 
excellence  now  and  then,  and  when,  though  he 
may  be  unequal  in  his  performances,  his  errors  do 
not  come  from  unsoundness,  or  from  inertness  of 
mind,  but  from  his  having  struck  upon  a  wrong- 
track,  or  from  want  of  some  piece  of  knowledge,  or 
L.  20 


3o6    The  Fiuidioiis  of  Examinations.   Selection. 

of  trained  skill  in  matters  which,  like  composition  in 
Classics,  require  long  use.  A  practised  Examiner 
will  also  mark  vivacity  in  the  work  as  a  good 
sign  ;  a  student  who  feels  that  he  is  making  way 
is  full  of  hope  and  spirit,  and  he  ventures  with  a 
happy  audacity  on  what  lies  on  the  very  edge  of 
his  range,  or  a  little  beyond.  There  is  an  air  of 
good  will  and  of  force  to  spare  in  all  he  does. 

The  stationary  or  retrogressive  condition  has 
two  varieties  ;  the  dull  man  may  have  reached  his 
limit,  or  one  who  has  been  pushed  on  may  have 
turned  idle.  The  man  who  has  a  misgiving  that 
he  has  eot  to  the  end  of  his  tether  shews  a  chronic 
weariness  of  his  work ;  he  has  gone  over  his 
books  so  frequently  that  he  reproduces  them 
mechanically,  he  is  living  on  stored-up  knowledge, 
and  even  his  phraseology  is  found  for  him  by  his 
memory,  he  avoids  fresh  brainwork,  he  is  quite 
contented  with  the  conventional  construings  of 
common  classical  phrases  and  the  recognised  me- 
thods of  dealing  with  certain  classes  of  problems. 
If,  however,  he  be  given  questions  of  the  sort  he 
expects,  he  will  make  a  good  show,  for  he  is  rapid 
in  ''writing  out"  what  he  knows,  and  is  pro- 
vided with  compendious  forms  :  where  long  prac- 
tice is  of  value  he  shows  himself  expert,  but  he 
will  not  encounter  what  is  new  to  him,  and  is 
more  apt  to  outflank  a  difficulty  than  to  face  it. 


The  Functions  of  Exaininatio7is,  Selectmi.    307 

The  youth  who  has  been  pushed  forward  under 
a  strict  tutor  and  who  fails  afterwards  from  weak- 
ness of  will  or  moral  defects  is,  like  the  advancing- 
man,  unequal  in  his  performances,  but  in  a  very- 
different  way.  His  knowledge  is  disintegrating, 
and  those  portions  last  longest  which  he  learnt 
either  while  quite  young,  or  most  lately,  or  in 
which  he  has  had  long  practice  and  some  success. 
He  may  still  produce  a  few  good  Latin  verses,  or 
hit  on  a  neat  solution  of  a  problem,  or  talk  plau- 
sibly on  some  open  question  in  philosophy ;  but 
all  knowledge  that  requires  keeping  7ip  is  falli-ng 
into  decay,  and  he  will  attempt  nothing  that  re- 
quires steady  tension  of  mind  ;  he  roves  daintily 
over  the  Examination  paper  and  will  only  touch 
what  he  has  a  mind  for. 

Another  point  is  this.  It  is  generally  ad- 
mitted that  power  is  better  shewn  by  first-rate 
excellence  in  one  or  two  branches  of  study  than 
by  moderate  proficiency  in  many,  and  those  who 
have  to  dispose  of  places  or  emoluments  such  as 
Fellowships  aim  most  often  at  securing  power ; 
hence  they  set  much  value  on  proficiency  in  one 
department.  The  evil  of  this  is  that  as  soon  as 
a  youth  shews  a  turn  for  Classics,  or  Mathe- 
matics, or  Natural  Science,  he  is  made  to  devote 
nearly  his  whole  time  to  that  study  with  a  view  to 

20 — 2 


3oS   The  Functions  of  Examinations.   Sclcciicn. 

gaining,  first  some  special  Scholarship,  and  a 
Fellowship  afterwards.  General  education,  even 
at  the  Universities,  is  at  present  thrust  with  some 
contumely  into  a  corner,  and  attention  is  concen- 
trated on  the  production  of  Classical  scholars,  or 
Mathematicians,  or  proficients  in  some  Natural 
Science  or  in  some  other  special  study.  In  fact  teach- 
ing is  now  too  much  directed  to  the  training  of  prize- 
winners, instead  of  to  the  educating  of  men.  This  is 
done,  not  so  much  because  people  want  savants  for 
the  sake  of  their  knowledge,  as  because  the  attain- 
ment of  special  excellence  is  taken  as  a  criterion  of 
ability  which  promises  distinction,  or  because  a 
high  class  is  "  a  credit  to  the  College." 

The  educational  effects  of  this  state  of  things 
only  concern  us  now  so  far  as  they  render  our 
criterion  delusive.  Special  proficiency  is  only 
trustworthy  as  an  evidence  of  strength  when 
it  has  been  healthily  attained.  Exclusive  culti- 
vation for  several  years  of  that  branch  of  study 
for  which  a  student  has  a  particular  aptitude  is 
injurious  to  general  power  in  severed  ways.  We 
cannot  keep  a  certain  portion  of  the  brain,  or 
mind,  in  special  activity,  leaving  the  rest  compara- 
tively unexercised,  and  that  from  the  age  of  1 6  to 
2  2,  without  causing  a  sort  of  hypertrophy  of  this 
part  and  a  starvation  of  the  rest.  The  consequence 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.  309 

will  be  that  the  student  will  lose  the  faculty  of  per- 
forming any  mental  operations  other  than  those 
which  occur  in  his  particular  study,  and  become 
a  specialist  not  only  as  to  acquirement,  but  as  to 
habits  of  mind;  his  thoughts  will  run  in  grooves, 
and  the  value  of  his  judgment  on  matters  of  life 
be  affected  thereby.  Moreover,  if  the  student  is 
led  to  believe  that  there  is  "  no  use "  in  his  at- 
tending to  any  study  but  that  which  lie  has  a 
fancy  for — if  he  resent  any  attempt  to  make  him 
give  attention  to  any  subject  that  lies  out  of  the 
course  in  which  he  is  to  win  his  prize,  and  if  when 
forced  to  do  so  he  will  commit  to  memory  what  he 
needs  must  learn,  rather  than  call  a  new  set  of  the 
mental  muscles  into  play — then  we  are  encourag- 
ing that  habit  of  mind  alluded  to  by  Mr  Mill  in 
the  passage  quoted  already  :  we  are  rearing  a 
race  incapable  of  doing  anything  they  do  not  like. 

I  now  come  to  a  matter  which  affords  room 
for  debate.  It  being  granted  that  excellence  in 
particular  subjects  serves  to  show  power,  some 
subjects  may  show  it  better  than  others.  We  have 
then  the  questions,  Which  show  It  best,  and  why  ? 

First  of  all  to  recur  to  our  old  distinction. 
Those  subjects  are  most  valuable  for  our  purpose 
which  result  in  an  "Art"  or  capacity.  Next  to 
these   come   those,  the  mastering  of  which  calls 


3IO    The  Functions  of  ExamuLations.    Selectmi. 

into  play  the  most  important  qualities  or  habits 
of  mind,  such  as  imagination,  concentration,  and 
reasoning  power.  Again,  those  subjects  in  which 
there  is  a  gradation  of  difficulty  as  we  mount  up 
step  by  step  are  more  effective  than  those  which 
are  sjDread  as  it  were  over  a  plain  ;  for  in  these 
last  we  can  only  measure  the  extent  of  knowledge, 
and  one  student  can  travel  twice  as  far  as  another, 
if  only  he  have  twice  the  time  and  sufficient 
memory,  without  possessing  higher  intellectual 
gifts.  A  student  who  knows  French  can  learn 
Italian  or  Spanish  if  he  have  the  time  without 
needing  any  greater  power  than  he  has  already 
shown,  and  a  student  may  learn  the  contents  of 
half  a  dozen  historical  works  without  calling  out 
other  faculties  than  those  wanted  for  mastering 
a  single  book.  The  extent  of  such  acquirements 
tests  only  diligence  and  retentiveness. 

Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  have  this 
particular  advantage  as  testing  subjects,  that  ques- 
tions of  any  degree  of  difficulty  can  be  given  in 
them.  In  like  manner  in  Classics  there  are  au- 
thors of  different  degrees  of  difficulty  both  in  lan- 
guage and  matter,  and  in  the  Moral  Sciences 
there  are  some  portions  which  require  more 
abstract  conceptions  and  more  reasoning  power 
than  others;  but  in  History  and  in  some  of  the 


The  Fwictious  of  Examinations.    Selection.    311 

Natural  and  the  Experimental  Sciences  there  is  a 
large  extent  of  matter  presenting-  little  variation 
in  point  of  difficulty.  If  we  take  up  Examination 
papers  in  a  Natural  Science  we  often  find  that  a 
large  number  of  the  questions  turn  on  a  knowledge 
of  facts  or  on  the  description  of  processes.  A  high 
place  in  an  Examination  may  possibly  be  gained 
by  answering  numerous  questions  of  this  descrip- 
tion, but  all  that  it  would  show  would  be  a  fitness 
for  becoming  a  chemist  or  geologist ;  it  would  not 
show  a  capacity  for  attaining  distinction  in  the 
pursuits  of  active  life. 

But  there  are  other  reasons  why  an  academi- 
cal Examination  in  Law,  or  History,  or  Moral 
or  Natural  Science  is  less  effective  than  one  in 
Classics  or  Mathematics  for  selecting  the  persons 
of  the  greatest  general  power.  The  mass  of 
educated  men  have  acquired  some  proficiency  In 
the  latter  studies,  while,  unless  they  have  some 
special  taste,  or  intend  to  follow  a  particular  calling, 
they  have  little  or  none  in  the  former,  and  conse- 
quently fewer  well-qualified  candidates  present 
themselves  for  competition  In  them.  Again  it  has 
been  shewn  that  to  discriminate  between  degrees 
of  ability  we  must  examine  the  candidates  In  sulv 
jects  which  they  ha\'e  full)-  mastered.  Now  what 
is  learnt  of  Natural  or  Experimental  Science  In 


312    TJie  FiLnctio7is  oj  Examinations.   Selection. 

a  University  course  bears  a  smaller  ratio  to  the 
whole  extent  of  that  science  than  is  the  case  with 
Classics  or  JMathematics  ;  in  these  a  ^oung  man 
leaves  the  University  fitted  to  fulfil  any  functions 
for  which  a  Classic  or  Mathematician  is  wanted, 
and  in  examining  him  we  can  look  for  close 
acquaintance  with  the  higher  parts  of  those  kinds 
of  learning;  but  an  undergraduate  Vx'ho  has  learned 
chemistry  or  geology  or  botany  has  done  little 
more  than  develope  an  aptitude  and  lay  a  foun- 
dation for  complete  knowledge.  To  attain  to 
this  he  must  spend  years  in  experiment,  or  in 
travel  and  observation.  There  are  grand  ge- 
neralizations and  profound  researches  lying  in 
store  for  these  sciences,  and  they  afford  scope 
for  the  most  abstract  conception  and  power  of 
systematization ;  but  these  problems  lie  at  the 
extreme  ends  of  the  subjects,  and  cannot  be 
dealt  with  (unless  at  second  hand)  except  by 
those  who  have  accumulated  stores  of  facts  by 
long-continued  investigation.  Hence  the  part  of 
these  subjects  which  is  best  adapted  to  bring  out 
ability  is  inaccessible  to  the  ordinary  University 
student  by  reason  of  limited  time  and  opportu- 
nities^.     Nevertheless  students  in  these  sciences 

^  Here  we  see  how  education  mny  be  hfimpcrcd  lliroiigli  rewards  given 
by  Examinations.  Tiie  Colleges  want  men  likely  to  make  a  figure  in  life, 
they  therefore  select  them  for  proficiency  in  the  subjects  which  afford  the 


Tlie  Functions  of  Examinations.   Selection. 


6^6 


may  shew  enough  proficiency  to  deserve  termin- 
able studentships  of  moderate  vahie.  I  would 
reserve  all  higher  emoluments  (supposing  we 
conclude  to  award  such  to  any  not  engaged  in 
duties)  for  those  who  should  have  displayed 
qualifications  in  science  of  a  nature  not  to  be 
tested  by  Examination,  or  acquired  in  a  merely 
academical  course. 

Further,  in  order  that  a  subject  may  act  effect- 
ively for  the  kind  of  discrimination  we  have  in 
view,  it  should  be  one  in  which  there  is  a  positive 
right  and  wrong.  When  the  matter  is  speculative 
one  school  of  opinions  will  prevail  at  one  time  and 
one  at  another.  The  Examiners  will  lean,  or  will 
be  fancied  by  the  students  to  lean,  to  one  or  the 
other\  and  however  impartial  they  may  wish  to  be 

best  test  of  their  likelihood  of  doing  so.  These  emoluments  are  the  main- 
spring of  the  higher  education,  and  all  that  does  not  lead  to  them  is 
neglected.  Thus  English  Literature,  wliich,  though  excellent  for  edu- 
cation, is  unsuited  for  competitive  examinations,  is  almost  ousted;  as  were 
also,  until  lately,  the  Natural  Sciences,  but  they  have  now  attained  full 
consideration  ;  indeed,  in  the  I.  C.  S.  Examinations  a  cursory  knowledge  of 
them,  which  is  of  little  educational  value,  fetches  more  than  it  deserves. 

^  Mr  Sayce  remarks  on  this  point  as  follows: — "  Not  very  long  ago  the 
Oxford  Class-list  in  the  Final  Classical  Examination  was  as  much  a  mo- 
nopoly as  the  appointments  to  the  Indian  Civil  Service.  It  became  an 
accepted  axiom  in  the  undergraduate  world  that  none  but  the  pupils  of  a 
certain  well-known  'coach'  had  much  chance  of  getting  a  first;  and  when 
the  Examiners  tried  to  circumvent  him  by  changing  the  character  of  the 
papers,  they  found  themselves  no  match  for  the  crammer,  who  had  swung 
round  from  Mill  to  Herbert  Spencer,  and  from  Herbert  Spencer  to 
Hegel." — Fortiii^Jitly  Rc-icii.;  ]\mc  x,  1875. 


314  The  Functions  of  Examinations.   Selection. 

this  element  of  suspicion  will  exist.  They  have 
also  to  compare  elements  which  are  quite  hetero- 
geneous, such  as  the  memory  which,  rather  than 
his  clearsightedness,  has  led  one  man  right,  and 
the  ingenuity  which  furnishes  another  with  ex- 
cellent reasons  for  being  wrong. 

Speaking  generally,  we  shall  find  that  those 
studies  are  most  fitted  for  use  in  discriminating 
ability  which  have  the  best  disciplinal  effect  on 
the  intellect  and  character,  that  is  to  say,  those 
which  call  into  play  the  greatest  variety  of  import- 
ant powers  and  which  tend  to  form  the  most 
valuable  habits  of  mind. 

The  old  studies.  Classics  blended  with  History 
and  Philosophy,  and  Mathematics  with  its  ap- 
plications to  Natural  Philosophy,  have  proved 
their  efiicacy  in  this  respect  after  long  trial ; 
the  public  learnt  to  attach  a  value  to  a  first  class 
at  Oxford  or  a  high  place  among  the  Wranglers 
at  Cambridge,  not  because  they  valued  the  Classics 
or  the  Dialectics,  or  the  Mathematics,  or  the 
Natural  Philosophy — people  had  a  very  dim  idea 
of  the  nature  of  the  studies  which  led  to  these 
distinctions — but  because  they  knew  that  they  re- 
presented a  liberal  education  as  understood  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  that  those  who  had 
won  them  often  distinguished  themselves  in  life. 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.    3 1 5 

The  above  studies  from  having'  been  long  used 
as  the  instruments  of  education  have  acquired  a 
more  organised  shape  than  others — teachers  have 
learnt  how  to  present  them  in  the  form  most  con- 
venient for  obliging  the  pupil  to  exercise  his  wits. 
They  are  well  adapted  for  "setting  lessons  in"  at 
schools,  and  are  convenient  subjects  both  for 
qualifying  and  competitive   Examinations. 

Some  kinds  of  study,  most  valuable  for  mental 
improvement  as  well  as  for  the  account  to  which 
the  matter  of  them  may  be  turned,  are  ill-suited 
for  scholastic  purposes  at  present,  from  defects  of 
the  form  in  which  they  are  exhibited,  and  these 
are  less  adapted  than  others  for  testing  ability  in 
Examinations. 

Fresh  subjects  may  from  time  to  time  be  put 
into  a  shape  suitable  for  this  purpose.  Those 
subjects  are  most  likely  to  be  serviceable  in  this 
way  which,  like  Political  Economy  and  Roman 
Law,  are  rigorously  derived  from  a  few  prin- 
ciples, and  which  may  be  applied  readily  to  a 
variety  of  special  cases. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  the  stock  of  prin- 
ciples is  slender,  and  the  mass  of  facts  or  opinions 
large — particularly  when  the  facts  are  discon- 
nected, as  they  arc  in  parts  of  English  Law,  in 
English  Etymology,  and  in  "  Political  Geography," 


3 1 6    The  Functions  of  Exainhiations.   Selection. 

as  It  is  commonly  treated, — the  subject  is  less  suited 
for  use  in  mental  training,  and  Examinations  in  it 
will  try  memory  rather  than  strength  of  head. 

The  attainment,  however,  of  distinction  in  a 
well-conducted  Examination  in  any  branch  of  sys- 
tematic knowledge,  is  a  guarantee  of  the  pos- 
session of  a  certain  calibre  of  mind.  It  shews 
that  a  person  is  capable  of  gathering  up  his  ener- 
gies for  a  considerable  effort,  and  he  must,  to  do 
well,  even  in  those  subjects  which  are  calculated 
to  bring  out  information  rather  than  intelligence, 
possess  a  good  analytical  memory,  a  clear  head,  a 
wide  mental  range  of  view,  and  a  way  of  doing 
things  thoroughly.  Hence  he  may  be  trusted  to 
acquit  himself  well  in  any  position  In  which  he 
may  be  placed,  more  safely  than  a  person  who  has 
a  readiness  in  picking  up  what  lies  near  the  sur- 
face but  who  has  not  shewn  the  power  of  attaining 
any  special  excellence.  The  deeper  our  Exami- 
ation  goes,  the  better  it  detects  a  "  flimsy"  mind. 

It  would  appear  then  that,  supposing  we  look 
to  proficiency  In  one  branch  of  study  as  a  criterion 
of  general  ability,  we  should  rate  the  efficiency  of 
this  branch  for  our  jourpose  by  the  Importance  of 
the  faculties  which  It  calls  Into  play.  But  in  order  to 
settle  what  studies  are  most  generous  and  catholic 
in  their  nature  would  require  a  laborious  analysis 


TJie  Fimctions  of  Exaniinations.    Selection.    317 


of  their  action  on  the  mind.  For  practical  purposes 
we  may  get  some  help  by  considering  them,  in 
connection  with  the  kind  of  interests  which  they 
awaken,  or  to  which  they  correspond. 

For  a  rough  classification  based  on  this  dis- 
tinction I  would  suggest  the  following  :■ — 

Interests  of  an  intellectual  nature  are  directed 
towards  human  beings,  to  other  objects,  and  to 
abstractions.  We  meet  with  characters  which  serve 
as  types  of  the  men  whose  interest  gravitates 
to  one  of  these  centres  of  attraction.  \\q.  may 
find  a  person  whose  leading  interest  is  in  other 
men.  Their  doings,  their  feelings,  their  institu- 
tions, and  their  welfare  have  a  strong  attraction 
for  him,  and  he  cares  little  for  matters  in  which 
the  human  element  does  not  appear.  If  one 
who  is  the  type  of  this  class  be  travelling  abroad, 
he  wants  to  see,  not  buildings  or  works  of  art 
or  natural  objects,  so  much  as  the  people  them- 
selves, he  longs  to  know  something  of  their  ways 
of  living  and  thinking,  he  is  full  of  human 
sympathy.  He  may  be  so  wrapped  up  in  his 
interest  for  persons  as  to  be  careless  of  externa] 
objects.  He  may  have  no  observation  for  things; 
he  may  even  be  impatient  if  a  companion  stops 
to  collect  wild  plants  or  to  examine  antiquities. 

The  representative  of  those,  whose  interest  is 


3i8   The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 

for  external  objects,  may  care  less  for  history  or 
poetry,  or  politics  or  sociology  than  for  what  strikes 
his  eye  in  the  material  world ;  his  turn  will  be 
for  Natural  Science,  for  Archaeology  or  Fine  Art. 
Another  will  revel  in  contemplating  abstractions, 
he  will  delight  in  mathematical,  or  metaphysical,  or 
possibly  poetical  conceptions,  and  his  main  interest 
in  what  he  sees,  will  be,  not  in  the  concrete 
objects  themselves,  but  in  some  law  or  general 
view  which  they  suggest  or  exemplify. 

There  are  branches  of  learnincr  which  answer 
to  these  several  types,  some  correspond  to  a  single 
one  almost  exclusively — pure  mathematics  and 
metaphysics,  for  instance,  to  the  last — while  some 
represent  a  combination  of  two  such  interests,  in 
nearly  equal  degrees.  Natural  Philosophy,  for  in- 
stance, combines  the  element  of  abstract  concep- 
tion with  that  of  observation.  Political  Economy, 
where  it  verges  on  Sociology,  combines  the  abstract 
with  the  human  element.  Classical  learninof 
unites  a  sympathy  with  the  thoughts  and  doings 
of  great  men  of  old  wath  an  appreciation  of 
those  laws  of  thought  which  underlie  all  human 
language.  Some  branches  of  learning  embrace 
all  the  three  elements,  but  in  very  varying  propor- 
tions. There  is  perhaps  hardly  any  one  of  them 
in  which  a  person  can  excel  who  has  no  head  at 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.  Selection.    319 


all  for  what  is  abstract,  for  we  find  this  element  in 
all  that  is  intellectual ;  but  a  man  may  be  wanting 
in  sympathies  with  human  beings,  and  be  unobser- 
vant of  the  external  world,  and  yet  be  a  good  lin- 
guist or  a  great  logician  or  pure  mathematician. 

It  would  carry  me  beyond  my  limits  to  assign 
to  every  science  its  place  as  regards  these  ele- 
ments. I  can  merely  suggest  this  way  of  looking 
at  the  matter  and  must  leave  it  to  the  reader  to 
make  the  application  to  particular  cases.  I  only 
have  to  observe  that  a  study  which  turns  ex- 
clusively on  a  single  interest  is  ill-suited  to  be  the 
sole  subject  of  an  Examination,  which  has  for  its 
object  to  enable  us  to  select  men  suited  for  the 
work  of  life. 

The  natural  philosopher  may  be  too  deficient 
in  human  sympathy  ever  to  deal  wisely  with  other 
men,  and  the  same  may  be  the  case  with  the 
pure  linguist — the  man  whose  love  is  not  for  the 
literature  but  for  the  vocables  of  a  language,  and 
who  does  not  care  to  trace  in  it  the  mind  or  the 
history  of  the  people  who  framed  it. 

Some  sciences  are  spoken  of  as  antagonistic. 
This  antagonism  is  more  easy  to  understand  by 
considering  the  diversity  of  the  interests  on  which 
they  turn  than  by  a  more  philosophical  analysis. 
The    sciences    which    deal   with    men    and    those 


320   TJic  Functions  of  Examinations.   Selection. 

Avhich  deal  with  objects  are  seldom  equally 
attractive  to  the  same  minds.  It  Is  not  precisely 
true  that  there  is  an  opposition  between  Classics 
and  Mathematics.  A  pure  mathematician  has 
usually  some  facility  for  languages,  much  more  so 
than  the  physicist.  The  abstract  element  in  Phi- 
lology is  often  attractive  to  him,  while  a  scholar  of 
great  mental  power  is  seldom  incapable  of  Mathe- 
matics, though  his  imagination  may  run  more 
toward  human  beings,  with  their  doings  and  affec- 
tions, than  toward  figuring  geometrical  or  physical 
relations  in  his  mind's  eye.  A  naturalist,  however, 
or  a  man  of  a  mechanical  and  constructive  turn 
has  often  a  positive  distaste  for  languages,  with 
little  love  for  poetry  or  literature,  and  still  less  for 
ethical  philosophy,  while  men  of  great  literary  ta- 
lent have  often  been  sin^jularlv  inobservant  and 
incapable  of  doing  anything  zvith  their  hands.  The 
classical  scholar  seldom  takes  a  natural  science  for 
his  hobby,  while  a  mathematician  often  docs  so. 

If  then  we  wish  to  know  that  a  man  has  been 
educated  all  round,  and  that  he  can  think  clearly 
on  other  subjects  than  his  favourite  one,  we  ought 
to  ascertain  that  he  has,  at  some  time,  attained 
a  fair  proficiency  in  some  supplementary  study. 

The  mathematician,  for  instance,  and  the  stu- 
dent of  Natural  Science,  in  order  to  reach  their  full. 


The  Functions  of  Examinatmis.    Selection.   321 

free  growth,  should  have  gone  through  some 
literary  training,  and  the  Classical  scholar  should 
have  been  exercised  in  dealing  with  physical 
ideas  or  with  some  science  of  observation,  which 
may  give  him  eyes.  The  actual  knowledge  thus 
acquired  will  no  doubt  soon  slip  away,  but 
some  conceptions  may  remain,  and  even  if  they 
do  not,  advantage  must  accrue  from  the  more 
general  development  of  the  faculties,  and  even 
from  the  mere  survey  of  a  new  department  of 
learninof.  The  men  who  indulc^e  the  most  in  con- 
tempt  for  all  learning  but  their  own,  are  either 
self-educated  men,  or  those  who  have  too  narrowly 
followed  their  own  bent  Avith  a  view  to  the  prizes 
now  held  out  for  special  acquirements.  Of  course, 
a  reasonable  Interval  should  elapse  between  heavy 
Examinations  In  different  kinds  of  study. 

I  have  before  said  that  it  Is  Impossible  to 
frame  an  Examination  which  shall  place  men  in 
order  of  ability.  We  cannot  judge  with  accurac)^ 
on  this  point  even  between  candidates  who  pre- 
sent themselves  In  the  same  branch  of  study. 
Knowledge  as  well  as  ability  must  be  a  factor  of 
the  result  in  any  case,  but  in  some  subjects  one 
factor,  and  in  some  the  other,  will  be  of  the  higher 
order.  As  we  pass  from  place  to  place  down  a  list 
drawn  up  in  order  of  merit,  we  usually  find  well 
L.  21 


32  2    The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 

marked  differences  both  of  ability  and  knowledge 
between  those  who  occupy  successive  places  near 
the  top ;  as  we  go  lower  down,  mere  knowledge 
counts  for  more  in  comparison  Avith  ability,  and, 
as  the  great  mass  of  competitors  have  read 
pretty  much  the  same  books,  the  variations  as  we 
pass  from  place  to  place  become  smaller,  till  we 
arrive  at  what  may  be  called  the  great  plateau 
of  mediocrity,  where  the  slope  is  only  just  per- 
ceptible. When  many  candidates  are  selected  out 
of  a  great  body,  as  in  the  Examinations  for 
the  Indian  Civil  Service  and  the  Army,  we  go 
down  so  far  that  tliis  plateau  is  reached;  and 
there  is,  in  fact,  no  difference  worth  considering 
between  the  last  ten  who  are  accepted,  and  the 
first  ten  who  are  rejected. 

To  conclude  this  chapter  we  will  glance  over 
some  of  our  results.  We  may  rest  satisfied  that 
a  man  who  gains  well-marked  success  in  any 
kind  of  Examination  which  deals  with  subjects 
of  considerable  difficulty  or  extent,  must  have  a 
certain  kind  of  power  ;  he  must  know  what  cxacti- 
tnde  means,  he  must  have  the  faculty  of  applying 
his  mind  firmly  to  a  matter  and  taking  off  and 
retaining  a  perfect  impression.  If  the  Examina- 
tion turns  on  the  knowledge  of  books,  as  it  must 
in  parts  of  Law,  History,  and  Literature,  little  else 


TJie  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection.  323 

beyond  the  above  power  "vvill  be  necessarily  dis- 
played, but  when  an  acquired_/^«^//y  is  brought  into 
play,  as  in  Classics,  Mathematics,  and  some  other 
branches  of  study,  we  see  the  mind  in  more 
varied  and  complete  activity,  it  is  no  longer 
mainly  receptive,  it  not  only  gives  house  room  to 
the  material  it  brings  together,  but  it  works  it  up 
into  some  new  product. 

In  many  branches  of  learning  two  or  three 
very  different  faculties  are  brought  into  play,  a 
Classical  Examination  for  instance  often  brings 
out  the  strong  contrast  that  exists  between  the 
two  different  types  of  the  scholarly  mind:  we  have 
the  pure  linguist,  who  has  great  imitative  capacity, 
who  writes  Latin  and  Greek  with  something  of  the 
genuine  ring,  and  who  will  by  force  of  gram- 
matical analysis  unravel  the  sentences  of  a  hard 
piece  of  reasoning  from  Aristotle  or  Plato,  so  as  to 
send  up  a  page  of  readable  English  translation 
without  very  precise  notions  of  what  it  is  about : 
and  we  may  have  another  who  is  weaker  in 
dealing  with  zuords,  who  has  less  memory  for  them 
and  is  less  happy  in  hitting  on  the  one  he  wants, 
but  who  is  much  stronger  in  perceiving  the 
relation  of  ideas.  He  has  enousfh  knowledije  of 
the  lancruao^e  to  make  out  the  Cfeneral  meaninof, 
and  by  steady   thought    one  point  after  another 


324     The  Functions  of  Exami7iations.    Selection. 

will  be  cleared  up,  the  sequences  of  the  reasoning 
will  be  established,  and  the  full  meaning  will 
reveal  itself  to  him. 

If  we  adopt  the  system  of  marks — and  if  we 
require  to  classify  the  candidates  we  can  hardly 
avoid  using  something  of  the  kind — a  high  position 
may  be  due  to  great  linguistic  or  great  logical 
excellence,  or  to  a  moderate  amount  of  both. 
Hence  if  we  wanted  to  discriminate  nicely  be- 
tween two  persons,  or  if  we  had  to  dispose  of 
a  post  for  which  a  person  of  one  or  the  other 
type  were  required,  it  would  be  necessary  to  see 
how  the  marks  were  obtained.  From  the  system 
of  publishing  all  the  marks,  which  is  adopted  in 
the  case  of  the  Examination  for  the  Indian  Civil 
Service,  one  who  understands  the  relative  value 
and  action  of  the  several  subjects  can  arrive 
at  a  far  better  impression  about  the  qualities  of 
the  candidates  by  looking  at  the  zte^ns  which 
compose  their  respective  aggregates,  than  by 
looking  at  the  aggregates  themselves.  I  shatl 
discuss  hereafter  the  relative  advantages  of  lists 
arranged  in  order  of  merit,  and  alphabetically  in 
small  classes. 

It  may  be  well  to  remark  that  though  we 
may  fairly  infer  that  a  man  who  has  done  well 
in   an  Examination  is   likely  to   be   an  effective 


The  Functions  of  Examinations.     Selection     ^'> 


o-D 


person,  it  is  by  no  means  safe  to  conclude  that 
no  one  will  turn  out  to  be  so  who  has  not  done 
well.  It  is  safer  to  draw  2k positive  than  a  negative 
augury.  Some  minds  are  not  ripe  till  the  time  for 
examination  has  gone  by,  and  some  intellects  of 
great  thinking  power  are  of  this  order.  More- 
over a  young  man's  work  may,  owing  to  dis- 
turbing causes,  not  shew  all  he  can  do,  and  when 
a  person  has  to  gain  his  bread  by  exertion  the 
stimulus  sometimes  calls  up  qualities  which  had 
been  overlaid  by  youthful  spirits  or  indulgent 
nurture.  But  it  is  by  no  means  to  be  wished  that 
our  criterion  should  be  infallible  ;  it  would  be  bad 
for  clever  young  men  to  imagine  that  they  had 
been  discovered  to  have  been  born  for  success, 
or  for  the  less  gifted  to  believe  that  they  had  been 
pronounced  dunces  by  an  irreversible  doom. 

When  we  were  considering  what  were  the 
studies  success  in  which  might  be  most  safely 
adopted  as  an  indication  of  the  kinds  of  ability  we 
were  looking  for,  we  found  that  we  had  to  guess, 
as  well  as  we  could,  from  an  a  priori  likelihood. 
But  it  would  not  be  impossible,  or  even  very  diffi- 
cult, to  get  something  like  statistical  information 
on  this  subject.  We  may  find  out  what  the  actual 
facts  ha\'e  been.  No  doubt  we  shall  have  to  strip 
off  some  cases,  as  exceptional  ones,  and  to  apply 


326     The  Functions  of  Excwiinations.    Selection. 

corrections  for  disturbing  causes  in  others,  but  a 
carefully  drawn  up  table,  putting  early  proficiency 
of  particular  kinds  by  the  side  of  the  doings  of 
after  life,  might  not  only  reveal  something  about 
the  objects  immediately  before  us  in  this  chapter, 
but  mi^ht  throw  lig-ht  on  the  conditions  most 
favourable  to  the  preservation  of  mental  health. 

If  we  could  see  how  those  who  in  their  youth 
were  great  classics,  mathematicians,  or  mental 
philosophers, — so  far  as  student  greatness  goes, — 
bore  themselves  in  the  work  of  their  lives,  we 
might  find  in  what  cases  early  promise  was  most 
frequently  fulfilled,  not  only  in  the  way  of  attain- 
ing advancement,  for  with  this,  fortune,  family 
and  personal  address  have  often  much  to  do,  but 
in  winning,  soon  or  late,  recognition  for  command- 
ing ability  or  good  service  done :  some  kinds  of 
early  distinction  we  might  find  were  more  fre- 
quently than  others  the  forerunners  of  a  career  of 
usefulness.  There  are  many  cases  in  which  men's 
lives  are  before  the  public  eye,  and  in  such  a  fuller 
analysis  might  be  possible ;  some  minds  would 
be  found  to  grow,  some  to  dwindle,  some,  ulti- 
mately, to  ossify  in  a  rigid  form,  some  to  take 
impression  from  every  passing  paradox,  some 
to  remain  plastic  and  open  to  fresh  ideas  while 
retaining   the   mastery  of  their  judgment  to  the 


The  Functions  of  Examinatlo7is.    Selection.     327 

last.  By  comparing  such  results  with  the  nature 
of  the  early  training  or  early  distinctions  of  the 
individual,  we  might  perhaps  learn,  that  an 
original  aptitude  for  certain  kinds  of  study,  and 
the  mental  exercise  involved  in  such  studies, — for 
the  two  elements  would  be  combined, — were  asso- 
ciated in  different  degrees  with  lasting  activity 
and  healthfulness  of  mind. 

We  have  University  records  of  academical 
performances  for  more  than  a  hundred  years,  and 
if  we  were  to  tabulate  a  great  number  of  cases 
of  marked  proficiency  in  different  studies,  and 
trace  the  careers  of  the  persons,  not  neglecting 
the  circumstances  of  their  physical,  and  above 
all  their  continuance  in  mental  health,  we  might 
arrive  at  results  which  would  be  of  value  to 
mental  physiologists.  Differences  of  fortune  and 
of  opportunities  would  introduce  formidable  dis- 
turbing causes,  but  these  would  be  partially  elimi- 
nated if  we  got  together  a  large  number  of 
cases.  I  believe  that  mental  physiology  will 
one  day  be  recognised  practically  in  education. 
The  time  may  come  when  certain  peculiarities  of 
mind  maybe  recognised  as  "indicating"  or  "coun- 
ter-indicating," in  medical  phraseology,  the  use 
of  certain  kinds  of  mental  exertion,  A  science 
of  observation   may  be   prescribed    in  one  case, 


o 


28     The  Functions  of  Examinations.    Selection. 


some  study  which  enforces  concentration  of  atten- 
tion in  another,  while  one  which  Involves  "  in- 
trospection "  may  be  strictly  prohibited  in  a  third. 
We  may  even  have  hereafter  a  medical  branch  of 
the  educational  profession,  we  may  have  persons 
who  shall  make  it  their  business  to  understand 
mental  constitutions,  and  to  advise  parents  as  to 
the  course  to  be  followed  with  youths  of  peculiar 
or  slightly  morbid  turns  of  mind.  I  am  aware  that 
what  I  hint  at  would  afford  a  tempting  field  for 
quackery,  but  at  the  same  time  I  feel  sure  that 
immense  good  might  be  effected  by  a  wise  prac- 
titioner who  should  unite  a  sound  knowledge  of 
mental  physiology  with  a  practical  acquaintance 
with  the  work  of  education. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge. 

In  this  Chapter  we  have  to  consider  a  simpler 
question  than  that  which  occupied  us  In  the  last. 
Instead  of  scrutinising  what  comes  before  us  in 
an  Examination  to  find  out  what  we  can  of  the 
qualities  and  general  ability  of  those  whose  work 
is  under  review,  we  shall  direct  our  attention  to 
the  knowledge  displayed.  We  shall  regard  it  as 
a  possession  valuable  to  the  man  himself,  and  also, 
in  many  cases,  to  others  who  want  his  services. 
In  order  to  proceed  more  methodically  we  have 
supposed  first  one  purpose  and  then  the  other  to 
be  paramount,  but  we  did  not  debar  ourselves  in 
the  last  Chapter  from  considering  the  value  of 
learning  as  a  constituent  of  ability :  we  regarded 
it  as  a  store  of  mental  food  required  as  a  jDro- 
vision  for  future  mental  growth.  Neither  can  we 
in  this  Chapter  consider  knowledge  apart  from 
the  intellectual  qualities,  the  possession  of  which 
is  implied  in  its  attainment,  or  which  are  brought 


2,jO      Examinations  as  a    Test  of  Knozulcdge. 

out  in  expressing  it  on  paper  or  in  otherwise 
putting  it  forth.  Knowledge  only  comes  before 
an  Examiner  in  very  close  combination  with  the 
power  of  producing  it,  and  I  shall  in  this  Chapter 
consider  this  power  as  being  bound  up  with,  and 
forming  part  of,  the  attainment  itself. 

The  case  which  in  this  Chapter  I  have  to  deal 
with  is  this  ; — -I  suppose  that  we  want  to  ascertain 
the  degree  of  proficiency  which  those  who  present 
themselves  have  reached  in  particular  branches 
of  learninof,  and  that  we  reo-ard  this  knowledo^e 
not  as  a  test  of  dilicjence  or  for  its  effects  as 
a  mental  exercise,  but  as  a  good  in  itself,  as  an 
acquisition  which  will  render  service  to  the  pos- 
sessor or  enable  him  to  render  service  to  others. 
This  function  of  Examinations  was  that  for  which 
they  were  first  employed.  As  soon  as  people 
began  to  depend  for  help  on  the  skill  or  advice 
of  those  who  were  supposed  to  possess  certain 
''Arts,"  it  became  necessary  to  find  out  that  these 
acquirements  were  genuine.  Not  only  in  what  we 
call  the  learned  professions,  but  in  many  other 
"crafts  and  mysteries"  as  well,  we  hear  of  pro- 
vision for  the  appointment  of  "wise  and  discreet 
persons"  who  are  to  examine  those  who  are  at  the 
end  of  their  apprenticeships.  No  one  could  act 
as  a  pilot,  for  instance,  till  he  had  been  pronounced 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Kn  out  edge.     331 

qualified  by  a  board  of  Examiners  in  a  Court  of 
Lode-manage.  People  would  not  trust  their  lives 
or  valuable  interests  to  persons  for  whose  qualifi- 
cations they  had  no  security.  Hence  qualifying 
Examinations  grew  up  to  meet  a  real  need. 
In  a  short  time  prizes  or  distinctions  were  be- 
stowed on  those  who  acquitted  themselves  best, 
and  the  competitive  element  was  thereby  intro- 
duced. It  may  be  observed  that  in  all  such  actual 
instances  the  Examination  was  combined  with 
some  definite  course  of  training,  the  candidate 
was  never  pronounced  fit  on  the  verdict  of  the 
Examination  alone  ;  neither  was  this  Examina- 
tion open  to  all  comers,  howsoever  and  whereso- 
ever taught.  It  formed  t\\Q  Jlnale  of  a  particular 
course  of  instruction,  it  strengthened  the  hands  of 
the  teacher  or  master  by  giving  him  something  to 
hang  in  terrorem  over  the  idle  pupil  or  appren- 
tice, and  it  served  to  detect  decided  ignorance  or 
incapacity.  There  are  many  callings  which  turn 
so  much  on  details  that  it  would  be  impossible  to 
ascertain  by  one  or  two  Examinations  that  a 
person  was  fit  for  his  vocation.  There  are  others 
in  which,  if  an  Examination  were  the  sole  test 
employed,  it  would  have  to  be  inconveniently 
long,  and  the  candidate  should  be  required  to 
answer  nearly  all  the  questions.     Now  we  find  by 


332     Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knoiulcdge. 

experience  that  a  high  standard  in  any  sort  of 
Examination  can  only  be  reached  by  persons  who 
have  more  than  the  average  cahbre  of  .mind. 
Dull  students,  however  hard  they  may  work,  and 
however  well  acquainted  they  may  be  with  their 
work  in  their  own  zvay,  can  never  get  beyond  a 
certain  point  in  Examinations,  the  talent  for 
bringing  out  what  they  know,  above  spoken  of,  is 
wanting  in  them ;  they  are  apt  to  misread  or 
overlook  questions  or  to  blunder  about  what  they 
know  perfectly  well.  Hence,  if  we  fixed  our  Ex- 
amination standard  as  high  as  would  be  necessary 
in  order  to  ensure  a  satisfactory  knowledge  of  a 
professional  subject — and  this  standard  would  have 
to  be  higher  if  we  had  only  one  Examination 
than  if  we  had  two — we  should  soon  find  our- 
selves running  short  of  Professional   advisers. 

Our  forefathers  thought  they  could  secure 
knowledge  by  authoritative  teaching  as  well  as  by 
Examination.  They  accepted  the  fact  that  a  youth 
had  had  proper  teaching  for  a  proper  time  as  a 
truarantee  for  his  knowinsf  what  he  wanted.  This 
is  not  worth  much  by  itself,  but  taken  together 
with  an  Examination  of  moderate  severity  it 
furnishes  a  test  of  some  value  which  persons  of 
moderate  ability  may  satisfy — and  by  combining 
these  two  modes   of  proceeding   our   forefathers 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knoiulcdge.     333 

obtained  as  many  persons  as  they  wanted  who 
were  possessed  of  passable  professional  or  technical 
skill. 

I  dwell  upon  this,  because  it  illustrates  a 
point  which  bears  on  the  conditions  for  the 
durability  of  knowledge.  Durability,  we  find, 
depends  in  part  on  the  length  of  time  during 
which  the  matter  to  be  acquired  has  been  kept 
before  the  pupil's  mind;  so  that  if  one  pupil  has 
spent  six  months  over  his  work,  while  another  has 
been  only  six  weeks  at  it,  though  the  performances 
of  the  two  in  an  Examination  may  be  nearly  on 
a  par,  the  knowledge  of  the  one  who  has  been 
longest  over  his  work  will  commonly  be  of  greater 
intrinsic  value  than  that  of  the  other ;  in  fact,  the 
latter  should  answer  half  as  many  questions  again 
as  the  former  to  represent  a  knowledge  of  equal 
value.  The  practice  common  at  many  Universi- 
ties of  exacting  attendance  during  a  certain  time 
at  certain  courses  of  lectures  depends  for  justifi- 
cation on  this  principle.  It  is  supposed  that  by 
such  attendance  the  knowledge  is  taken  in  little  by 
little,  and  that  each  portion  will  have  had  time  to 
sink  into  the  mind  of  the  pupil.  If  these  con- 
ditions are  fulfilled  they  will,  no  doubt,  be  favour- 
able to  the  durability  of  knowledge.  That  our 
forefathers  should  from  practical  needs  have  been 


"^  ^4     Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 


vD  J 


led  to  adopt  the  course  which  our  theory  would 
suggest,  is  a  testimony  to  its  correctness.  They 
combined  an  Examination  of  moderate  difficulty 
with  a  disciplinal  course  of  study  of  considerable 
length,  and  this  we  still  find  to  be  the  most 
expedient  course  when  we  require  a  considerable 
body  of  fairly  qualified  practitioners  for  profes- 
sional needs  or  of  persons  fairly  versed  in  any 
kind  of  learning. 

The  Examinations  of  old  times,  with  the 
exception  of  certain  inspections  of  schools  which 
do  not  concern  us  now,  were  all  technical  ones, 
usinof  the  term  in  the  sense  attached  to  it  in 
the  first  Chapter.  All  that  the  Examiners  cared 
for  was  to  see  that  the  person  examined  could 
do  what  he  was  going  to  be  paid  for;  they 
cared  nothing  for  the  cultivation  of  the  person 
himself;  they  certified  in  fact  to  the  quality  of 
particular  kinds  of  skilled  labour  which  were 
brought  into  the  market.  Many  professional  and 
other  Examinations  are  still  necessarily  technical. 
These  need  not  particularly  occupy  our  attention 
here,  not  because  they  are  less  important  than  other 
Examinations,  but  because  they  have  already  been 
pretty  well  brought  to  compass  the  end  they  had  in 
view.  Professional  Examiners  know  exactly  the 
requirements  of  the  profession  ;  they  know  exactly 


Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knozulcdgc.     335 

what  the  candidate  will  have  to  do  with  his 
knowledge  when  he  has  got  it;  and  they  arc  not 
likely  to  be  taken  in  by  mere  book  knowledge 
got  up  for  the  purpose  of  an  Examination  alone. 
Moreover  the  students  they  have  to  deal  with, 
the  better  sort  at  least,  look  beyond  the  Exami- 
nation, when  that  is  over  they  will  not  have  done 
with  their  knowledge,  they  have  to  win  their 
bread  by  it,  and  though  they  may,  and  often  do, 
look  too  narrowly  to  what  will  be  of  immediate 
use  in  practice,  yet,  on  the  whole,  they  are  willing 
students.  Another  consideration  relieves  us  from 
the  great  difficulty  of  all — the  question  of  the 
durability  of  the  knowledge.  Professional  students 
cannot  forget  any  considerable  proportion  of  what 
they  have  had  to  learn,  because  they  have  to  use 
it  every  day  of  their  lives.  This  observation  how- 
ever only  applies  to  those  portions  of  their  Ex- 
aminations which  bear  directly  on  practice.  In 
most  Professional  Examinations,  we  find  certain 
subjects  included  which  are  valuable  because  they 
force  the  student  to  take  a  broader  view  of  the 
province  of  his  labour  than  he  could  catch  from 
the  confined  path  which,  at  starting,  he  has  com- 
monly to  follow,  or  because  they  equip  him  with 
the  requisites  for  exploring  new  tracts,  or  for 
dealing  with    the  philosophy  of  his  subject.     Such 


oo 


6     Examinations  as  a    Test  of  Knowledge. 


studies  are  Roman  Law,  Jurisprudence,  and  Inter- 
national Law,  in  the  legal  career;  Botany,  Mecha- 
nics, and  some  parts  of  Chemistry,  in  the  medical 
profession.  These  studies  are  not  kept  bright  by 
use  in  practice,  and  the  student  cannot  see  that 
they  will  help  him  on  ;  they  will  not  bring  him 
briefs  or  patients,  or  enable  him  to  do  his  routine 
work  with  more  ease  ;  and  so  it  not  unfrequently 
happens  that  he  learns  them  with  as  much  indif- 
ference and  forgets  them  with  as  much  alacrity  as 
if  he  were  a  non-professional  student  who  had  to 
qualify  himself  in  certain  "liberal"  studies  for  a 
pass  Examination. 

These  parts  then  of  the  Professional  Exami- 
nations belong  to  general  education,  and  our 
remarks  on  the  danger  of  artificial  Examination 
knozvledge  taking  the  place  of  real  knowledge,  and 
of  that  which  is  flimsy  and  fading  passing  itself 
off  as  solid  and  indelible  will  therefore  apply  to 
them. 

In  the  Examinations  employed  in  liberal  edu- 
cation, three  purposes  are  carried  on  simultane- 
ously, we  usually  want  to  learn  three  things  about 
the  candidate,  and  the  Examiner  mentally,  if  not 
actually,  assigns  to  him  credit  on  each  separate 
score;  we  want  to  gauge  his  ability  in  the  way 
spoken  of  in  the  last  Chapter;  we  also  want  to  see 


Exaviinatious  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     337 


what  he  knows,  and  often  we  want  to  give  a 
sanction  to  some  course  of  teaching  and  to  as- 
certain that  the  student  has  orone  throuerh  the 
processes  of  thought,  which  the  educator  intended 
him  to  perform. 

We  are  only  concerned  here  with  the  testing 
of  knowledge,  and  with  such  knowledge  as  can 
be  made  useful  to  society,  or  which  affords  a 
sensible  addition  to  a  person's  intellectual  wealth. 

This  limitation  must  be  borne  in  mind  :  for  a 
dull  person  may  be  learning  all  his  youth  long, 
and  may  get  considerable  good  from  the  process, 
and  yet  may  have  nothing  to  shew — nothing  that 
we  can  vieasure — at  the  end  of  the  time.  What 
he  does  learn  is  how  to  get  up  on  occasion  what 
he  wants,  and  to  use  such  wits  as  he  has  to  the 
best  purpose.  He  may  turn  out  useful  for  many 
positions,  and  yet  he  may  possess  nothing  that  can 
be  called  an  acquirement.  The  brain  gets  indeed 
a  little  tinged  with  what  runs  through  it ;  most 
kinds  of  study,  even  with  stupid  pupils,  leave 
traces  which  are  of  some  good  to  the  learner, 
but  it  is  seldom  that  any  one  kind  is  sufficiently 
mastered  to  be  made  of  use  to  other  people, 
unless  it  is  kept  in  exercise  by  coming  into  the 
business  of  life.  As  I  said  in  speaking  of  the 
Mathematical    Tripos,    with    the    higher   class  of 


338     Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knoivledge. 


students  the  value  of  the  knowledo-e  itself  is  crreat, 
and  often  outweiohs  that  of  the  traininor  while 
with  the  duller  sort  of  students,  nearly  the  whole 
ofood  of  education  comes  from  its  Qrivinof  them 
the  use  of  their  brains.  Some  subjects  leave 
much  more  behind  them  than  others,  but  in 
general,  unless  the  knowledge  is  kept  up,  it  soon 
ceases  to  be  available  for  actual  use,  and  only 
serves  for  the  general  culture  of  its  possessor. 

The  Examiner  in  the  matter  now  before  us 
will  have  three  thino-s  to  do. 

(i)  He  must  find  out  how  much  the  can- 
didate has  learnt,  how  thoroughly  he  knows  it, 
and  how  readily  he  can  apply  his  knowledge. 

(2)  He  must  consider  ho\v  far  the  sort  of 
knowledge  which  he  discovers  is  of  the  kind 
wanted  for  the  purpose  in  view. 

(3)  He  must  judge  of  the  durability  of  the 
acquirement — that  is,  how  long  the  possessor  is 
likely  to  retain  it. 

I  shall  consider  each  of  these  heads  in  order. 

I.  Attainments  may  be  grouped  in  two  classes 
corresponding  to  the  distinction  we  have  so  often 
drawn.  One,  comprising  those  subjects  the  kno\v- 
ledge  of  which  yields  a  practical  facult)',  and  which 
for  shortness  we  may  call  "Art  subjects,"  and  the 
other  those  from  which  no  such  accomplishment 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     339 

results.  What  is  submitted  to  the  Examiner  by 
the  student  in  the  one  case  is  a  specimen  of  the 
skill  acquired  through  a  process  of  learning ;  in 
the  second  he  produces  portions  of  information 
which  he  has  derived  from  books  or  teaching, 
and  has  put  by  in  his  head,  arranged  for  use  with 
more  or  less  method. 

It  is  much  easier  to  ascertain  what  a  person 
really  knows  in  the  case  of  an  "Art  subject"  than 
in  that  of  subjects  of  the  other  description.  We 
can  set  the  classical  student  to  translate  Greek 
or  render  English  into  Latin,  just  as  we  could 
give  the  musician  a  violin  and  call  on  him  to  pki}-. 
There  is  no  room  here  for  "  cramming,"  and  we 
can  judge  of  the  order  of  his  accomplishments  as 
a  wJiole,  from  a  few  specimens.  But  the  know- 
ledge which  is  of  the  character  of  information 
is  different  in  this  respect. 

If  we  want  to  lind  out  how  far  a  person  knows 
History  or  Geography,  we  can  only  judge  by  the 
answers  he  gives  to  questions  on  a  few  points, 
hence  we  have  to  form  our  estimate  of  the  value 
of  the  cargo  by  the  quality  of  a  few  samples,  the 
cargo  not  necessarily  being  equall)^  good  th.rough- 
out,  and  these  samples  must  therefore  be  selected — 
that  is  to  say,  the  questions  will  have  to  be  framed 
— with  great  care. 


340    Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge, 

Returning  to  the  first-named  class  of  subjects, 
we  find  that  we  have  comparatively  little  difficulty. 
Examinations  properly  conducted,  whatever  else 
they  may  be  meant  to  effect,  must  show  in  what 
degree  the  "Art"  is  possessed.  If  the  workman 
displays  the  skill  we  want,  we  need  not  trouble 
ourselves  how  it  was  come  by.  If  we  want  a 
good  Greek  scholar  to  teach  the  language  or  to 
edit  an  author,  we  can  ascertain  by  trial  whether 
a  candidate  has  the  requisite  knowledge ;  it  does 
not  matter  how  this  knowledge  was  got,  it  must 
be  genuine,  no  "crammer"  can  "veneer"  a  person 
with  the  power  of  writing  Greek  Prose:  if  he  can 
give  it  to  him  by  a  short  way  so  much  the  better. 
When  we  find  the  Greek  good  we  need  look  no 
further. 

I  assume  that  the  Examination  is  extensive 
enough  to  test  acquaintance  with  authors  of  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  difficulty,  and  that  it  does  not 
turn  upon  "  set  subjects  ;"  for  these  latter  afford 
no  criterion  of  knowledge  of  the  language,  al- 
though they  may  be  of  service  in  education,  and 
a  close  acquaintance  with  a  great  work  in  its 
orioinal  lanfruao^e  is  an  addition  to  a  man's  men- 
tal  wealth.  The  branches  of  Mathematics  which 
abound  in  operations  are,  so  far,  **  Art  subjects," 
and  the  above  remarks  apply  also  to  them. 


Examinatio7ts  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     341 

Whether  the  Examination  be  framed  mainly 
for  educational  purposes,  as  in  School  or  College 
Examinations,  or  with  a  view  to  pick  out  the 
person  who  gives  the  greatest  promise  of  dis- 
tinction, it  will,  if  good  of  its  kind,  serve  to  test 
the  range  of  the  knowledge.  It  may  go  bcyo7id 
what  we  want,  but  it  will  answer  our  end. 
We  may  make  sure,  for  instance,  that  a  mathe- 
matician is  familiar  with  his  subject  without  calling 
on  him  to  solve  hard  problems  in  a  very  limited 
time,  as  we  do  when  we  want  to  test  his  power 
and  ingenuity,  or  to  produce  long  demonstrations 
which  for  educational  reasons  we  may  want  to 
know  that  he  has  mastered.  But  Examinations 
which  involve  these  must  brino-  out  knowledcre 
of  mathematics,  as  well  as  ability  and  training. 
It  may,  however,  obstruct  the  advance  of  the 
student  to  the  more  important  parts  of  his  science 
to  be  forced  to  prepare  for  a  display  of  ingenuity, 
and  so,  if  our  view  be  solely  to  promote  or  to  test 
acqtiisition,  we  should  frame  our  Examination  in 
a  suitable  way. 

I  now  only  give  very  general  directions  as  to 
the  best  mode  of  effecting  this,  because  when 
the  object  is  clearly  understood,  Examiners  soon 
find  the  way  to  attain  it. 

I   have  spoken   in  the  fourth  Chapter  of  an 


342    Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge. 

Examination  which  miofht  be  held  in  the  hio^hest 
branches  of  Mathematics  in  order  to  test  advanced 
knowledge,  such  as  would  be  required  by  persons 
intending  to  pursue  mathematical  science — these 
Examinations  would  be  instances  of  the  kind  I 
am  now  contemplating.  It  would  soon  be  found 
that  the  papers  given  in  such  Examinations  as- 
sumed a  style  very  different  from  that  of  those  set 
in  the  ordinary  Examinations  which  are  directed  to 
finding  out  the  pupil's  ability  and  his  adherence 
to  the  prescribed  course  of  study,  as  well  as  his 
actual  knowledge. 

When  we  come  to  what  I  may  call  iiiforma- 
tion  subjects,  a  point  or  two  must  be  noticed. 
Every  subject  of  Examination  of  course  com- 
prises positive  information  in  some  degree,  so 
that  the  term  ''Art  subjects"  must  be  only  under- 
stood to  mean  those  in  which  a  faculty  of  doing 
somethincf  results  from  the  knowledo-e  which  is 
possessed.  The  classical  scholar  may  not  know 
the  meaning  of  some  word  or  idiom,  and  the  want 
of  this  piece  of  information  may  prevent  his  trans- 
lating the  passage.  This  brings  us  to  the  first 
point  that  I  have  to  consider,  which  is  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  different  kinds  of  information. 
Some  are  spread  through  the  whole  mass  of  a  sub- 
ject, others  are  isolated  matters  embedded  in  it. 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.    343 

For  instance,  the  scholar's  ignorance  of  a  very 
unusual  word  does  not  disclose  to  us  ignorance  of 
anything  else  ;  but  if  he  mistake  the  meaning  of  a 
common  idiom  or  of  a  legal  term  of  frequent  oc- 
currence in  Latin,  he  cannot  have  an  intelligent 
acquaintance  with  Latin  Literature  or  History. 

Many  subjects  contain  both  principles  and  facts; 
the  first  take  time  to  grasp,  but  when  grasped 
they  constitute  an  abiding  possession.  Take 
Political  Economy  for  example.  It  requires  some 
thought  to  get  clear  conceptions  about  Capital, 
Cost  of  Labour,  Rent,  and  the  like;  a  person  taking 
up  the  book  casually  and  beginning  the  chapters 
so  headed  would  not  understand  them.  But  some 
parts  of  the  subject  consist  of  facts:  the  history  of 
the  Bank  of  Amsterdam  for  instance,  or  the  ac- 
count of  the  Metayer  system, — and  these  any 
educated  person  could  comprehend  on  first  read- 
ing them.  The  Examiner  then  must  crive  far 
more  importance  to  questions  on  principles  than 
to  those  on  facts,  in  order  to  estimate  properly  the 
cost  and  the  utility  of  the  knowledge. 

In  History,  the  frameivork  of  events  answers 
in  some  degree  to  a  principle.  If  this  stntctnfat 
portion  be  unsound,  the  whole  fabric  will  be  in  a 
tottering  state,  but  there  are  certain  parts  which,  if 
they  should  decay  or  be  fault)',  may  be  removed 


344    Exarniriatioiis  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 

and  replaced — like  a  decorative  statue  in  a  niche 
of  a  wail — without  injury  to  the  whole. 

Thus  questions  on  the  concatenation  of  circum- 
stances or  the  spread  of  influences,  or  the  general 
position  of  affairs  at  a  certain  time,  should  carry 
much  more  weight,  than  those  which  could  be 
answered  in  a  few  words  by  turning  to  a  book 
of  reference.  Even  in  order  to  use  such  a  book  to 
good  purpose,  a  person  must  have  an  idea  of  the 
skeleton  of  his  subject,  and  this  cannot  be  got 
in  a  moment;  when  he  has  obtained  this,  he  can 
build  up  the  body  of  his  knowledge,  if  only  he 
knows  where  to  find  the  information  he  needs. 

For  instance,  a  person  unacquainted  with  the 
History  of  France,  hearing  Cardinal  Mazarin  men- 
tioned, turns  to  a  Biographical  Dictionary,  that  he 
may  learn  "all  about  him" — but  there  he  finds 
himself  entangled  with  "the  Pope,"  whose  name 
is  perhaps  not  given,  with  Anne  of  Austria,  of 
whom  he  knows  nothing,  and  with  the  wars  of 
the  Fronde,  which  he  has  never  heard  of,  so  that 
he  is  no  wiser  when  he  shuts  the  book  than  he 
was  when  he  opened  it.  One  Avho  had  got  a 
striiciural  skeleton  of  French  History  in  his  head 
would  gather  from  the  article  just  what  he  wanted. 

Some  parts  of  all  knowledge  must  be  built  up 
by  ourselves  for  ourselves,  while  there  are  others 


Exami7iatio7is  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     345 

which,  like  articles  of  furniture,  can  be  purchased 
and  put  in  their  proper  places  whenever  we  please. 
Questions  on  particulars  of  this  sort  should  be 
sparingly  set  by  the  Examiner,  both  because  they 
are  of  little  service  in  helping  him  to  assign  its 
value  to  the  student's  knowledge,  and  also  for  a 
reason  belonging  to  the  next  head — because  they 
call  into  existence  a  special  variety  of  knowledge 
adapted  more  for  Examinations  than  for  use. 

As  a  practical  rule,  the  Examiner  is  more 
likely  to  set  suitable  papers  for  the  purpose  we 
have  now  in  view,  when  he  sets  them  '■'02it  of  his 
head'"  than  when  he  takes  certain  books  and  picks 
out  questions  from  them.  Besides,  in  order  to  set 
the  paper  from  what  he  has  in  his  head  he  must 
be  full  of  his  subject.  This  is  a  guarantee  of  his 
qualifications,  and  what  has  endured  in  his  own 
mind  is  likely  to  belong  to  that  more  structural 
part  of  the  fabric,  which  I  have  spoken  of. 

But  questions  which  can  be  answered  in  a 
word  or  two  are  easy  to  frame  and  save  trouble  in 
the  looking  over,  and  such  is  now  the  pressure  put 
upon  Examiners,  that  they  are  forced  to  econo- 
mize labour.  They  can  hardly  possess  enough 
floating  knowledge  to  furnish  all  the  papers 
required,  and  they  therefore  take  their  questions 
sometimes  out  of  books,  selecting   points  which 


34^    Exa77iinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 

are  perhaps  isolated,  and  which  belong  to  that  part 
of  knowledge  which  the  student  does  not  require 
to  carry  always  about  with  him.  Teachers  begin 
to  complain  of  the  papers  set  in  some  educational 
Examinations  as  encouraeingf  students  to  trust  to 
the  "Portative  Memory"  instead  of  assimilating 
knowledge.  If  Examiners  were  to  draw  the  bulk 
of  their  questions  from  their  own  fund  of  knowledge 
without  using  books  except  for  reference,  the 
value  of  their  Examinations,  both  as  a  test  of 
attainment  and  as  an  educational  appliance,  would 
be  greatly  increased. 

Answers  that  are  erroneous  throw  much  light 
on  the  state  of  a  student's  knowledge. 

When  a  candidate's  answer  is  wrong,  he  com- 
monly receives  no  marks  for  that  particular  ques- 
tion, but  the  nature  of  the  blunder  may  be  such  as 
to  show  that  his  conceptions  are  wrong  altogether, 
or  that  he  cannot  be  said  to  have  any  conceptions 
at  all,  right  or  wrong,  upon  the  matter;  in  this 
case,  those  of  his  answers  in  this  subject  that 
happen  to  be  correct  will  not  indicate  knowledge 
of  any  value,  but  only  the  recollection  of  the  words 
of  some  manual,  and  no  credit  should  be  given 
for  them. 

Again,  various  sciences  of  experiment  and 
observation  are  now  made  the  subjects  of  paper 


Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge.     2)4-7 

Examinations.      Such    Examinations    are    never 
quite  satisfactory,  but  if  the  student  answer  nearly 
all  the  questions  rightly,  this  will  shew  a  valu- 
able knowledge  of  his  science.      When,  however, 
a   student   gets  only  a  small    proportion    of  the 
marks, — 150   marks   for    instance    out  of  500  in 
Geology, — this  does  not  indicate  knowledge  o(  ajiy 
practical  value  at  all.     If  we  were  to  show  such 
a  student  a  piece  of  domite,  he   would  probably 
call  it  chalk  ;  he   has   never  made  out  how  the 
strata  lie   in  a  district,  and  does  not  know  how 
to  set  about  it ;  what  he  /las  learnt  is  the  nomen- 
clature  of  the    science   out    of  a    manual.     The 
geological  student  should  know  this  nomenclature, 
but  its  value   hes    in    its    being    applied    further 
on ;  and  if    the  student   do    not  go    far   enough 
to  use  it,   he  might  as  well  have   learnt  a  page 
or  two  out  of  Johnson's   Dictionary.      Hence   no 
credit  whatever  should  be  allowed  on  the  score  of 
acquirement  for  scanty  knowledge  of  a  subject  of 
this  nature  displayed  on  paper.      If  a  candidate 
can   perform    even   a  few  practical  processes,  or 
identify  specimens  in  branches  of  Natural  History, 
he  may  claim  some  credit.     An  aggregate  made  up 
by  a  few    marks    in    several   subjects    shews    no 
knowledge,  but  rather  dissipation  of  mind. 
•    When  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  Examina- 


34^    Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knozuledge. 

tion  to  test  acquirement  the  case  is  different.  For 
instance,  in  examining  with  an  educational  view, 
we  must  recoHect  that  with  beginners,  knowledge 
comes,  not  steadily,  not  advancing  as  it  were  in 
line,  but  by  patches — a  bit  here  and  there  becomes 
bright,  and  the  brightness  may  spread  over  the 
whole  field  of  view.  Hence,  in  such  cases,  the 
Examiner  will  be  less  ready  to  pronounce  that  all 
is  dark  because  he  comes  on  a  very  bad  blunder. 
But  in  an  Examination,  which  is  regarded  as  final, 
and  to  show  that  a  candidate  possesses  acquire- 
ments of  service  to  himself  or  to  others,  know- 
ledge which  stops  short  of  the  fruit-bearing 
stage  should  not  be  allowed  to  count  for  any- 
thing at  all.  When  we  regard  the  possessor  of 
knowledge  as  a  skilled  labourer  we  require  a 
certain  completeness  of  skill.  Knowledge,  in 
order  to  have  any  exchangeable  value,  must  be 
tolerably  perfect  in  its  own  department :  the 
foundations  of  edifices  are  not  marketable  at  all. 

But  in  education  the  case  is  different ;  we  give 
credit  then  for  mental  training.  The  plan  of  allow- 
ing marks  in  proportion  to  knowledge  is  quite 
justifiable  on  cdiicational  grounds,  because  a  pupil 
must  have  used  his  wits  a  little  to  have  learnt 
a  single  book  of  Euclid;  and  even  the  elements  of 
Latin  or  TVench  Grammar  are  worth   something 


Exaviinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     349 

as  scaffolding,  supposing  that  the  owner  is  going 
on  to  build.  Even  if  the  learner  at  the  end 
knoiv  but  little,  he  may  not  have  lost  his  pains — 
he  may  have  got  clearer  conceptions  and  more 
of  them,  as  well  as  a  better  use  of  his  faculties, 
from  the  discipline  he  has  gone  through. 

II.  I  now  come  to  the  second  of  the  purposes 
which  the  Examiner  has  in  view,  that  of  ascertaining 
that  the  knowledge  which  has  been  acquired  is  of 
the  sort  which  will  be  wanted  in  the  position  the 
candidates  hold,  or  be  valuable  to  them  as  a  per- 
sonal possession. 

When  Examiners  have  to  test  the  qualification 
of  candidates  for  admission  to  the  Professions  or 
to  appointments — as  in  the  case  of  the  Further 
Examination  for  the  Indian  Civil  Service — they 
understand  exactly  the  duties  which  will  have  to 
be  performed  and  have  only  to  adhere  to  a  general 
rule  which  may  be  stated  as  follows: 

Examinations  employed  to  test  the  value  of 
acquirements  should  turn  on  the  exercise  of  these 
acquirements  as  much  as  possible  in  the  way  in 
which  they  are  employed  in  actual  practice. 

Of  late  it  has  become  necessary  to  examine  in 
some  subjects  of  a  practical  kind,  which  it  is 
difficult  to  treat  in  the  way  indicated  by  our  rule. 
Examinations     framed    like    those    employed    in 


350    Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 

education  have  been  introduced.  We  are  in 
consequence  driven  to  examine  on  paper  in  sub- 
jects which,  in  a  great  degree,  turn  on  acquaint- 
ance with  objects  or  experiments.  Instead  of 
performing  an  experiment  Jiimself  before  the 
Examiners,  the  pupil  describes  on  paper  the  way 
to  do  it,  and  this  description  comes  out  of  a  book. 
The  consequence  is  that  the  "book-work"  element 
in  many  subjects  has  been  made  unduly  prominent. 
Thus  students  reading  for  an  Examination  may 
get  one  aspect  of  some  studies,  and  those  who 
pursue  the  studies  for  use  in  the  business  of  life 
may  get  altogether  another.  Indeed,  it  is  possi- 
ble that  the  student  who  has  passed  his  Exami- 
nation may  have  to  begin  again,  and  learn  his 
subject  in  a  different  way  when  he  wants  to  make 
use  of  it. 

An  instance  of  this  occurred  when  Civil  EnQ-i- 
neers  for  the  Indian  Service  were  selected  by 
competitive  Examination.  Those  came  to  the 
front  who  were  "well  up"  in  the  text-books,  and 
had  a  facility  in  solving  a  certain  kind  of  Mathe- 
matical problems.  The  Engineer,  in  the  course 
of  a  series  of  great  works  of  construction,  might 
have  to  address  himself  to  half-a-dozen  of  such 
problems,  but,  in  the  Examination,  success  turned 
mainly  on  a  facility  in  solving  th.cm,  and  on  the 


Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge.     351 

power  of  reproducing  text-books.  I  n  actual  service 
the  Engineer  would  take  these  books  with  him,  and 
all  he  would  want  would  be  to  recollect  where  to 
turn  for  what  he  needed  ;  hence  what  was  wanted 
for  Examination  differed  from  what  was  wanted  in 
practice.  Moreover,  in  the  course  of  an  Examina- 
tion of  a  few  days  it  was  impossible  to  see  with 
what  handiness  each  candidate  could  use  a  theodo- 
lite or  how  he  could  lay  down  a  map  ;  much  less 
was  it  possible  to  ascertain  whether  he  knew  good 
materials  from  bad  ones,  or  had  an  eye  for  the 
capabilities  or  difficulties  offered  by  a  line  of 
country,  or  the  power  of  estimating  the  amount 
of  work  in  an  undertaking.  In  consequence  the 
men  sent  out,  selected  by  competition,  Vv^ere  often 
found  to  be  useless,  and  the  evil  w^as  remedied 
by  recurring  to  the  sound  practice  of  providing 
a  special  course  of  instruction  and  using  Exami- 
nations alone-  with  it  as  a  sanction  for  the  teach- 
ing.  The  establishment  of  the  very  successful 
College  at  Cooper's  Hill  has  met  this  difficulty. 

In  Germany,  as  I  am  told,  the  Examination 
employed  falls  in  with  the  rule  I  have  laid  down. 
The  students  have  not  only  studied  at  a  Poly- 
technic school,  but  they  are  called  on  afterwards 
to  do  exactly  what  they  will  have  to  do  in  their 
profession — they  are  directed  to  prepare  plans  and 


,52    Examhiatiojis  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 


specifications  for  a  line  of  railway  or  a  canal  or 
for  drainage  works  in  the  neig-hbourhood  of  their 
place  of  study,  and  are  allowed  three  months  to 
do  it  in  ;  they  are  examined  in  the  text-books  and 
scientific  parts  of  the  subject  during  their  course 
of  instruction  from  time  to  time. 

But  it  is  not  only  in  technical  subjects  that 
the  Examiner  has  to  distinguish  knowledge 
available  for  use,  from  educational,  and  from  arti- 
ficial knowledge.  Many  subjects  comprised  in  a 
liberal  education  may  be  studied  in  a  different  way 
for  an  Examination  from  that  in  wdiich  they 
would  be  learned,  if  only  wanted  for  the  student's 
own  use  ;  but  the  knowledge  is  not  the  worse  on 
that  account,  if  the  Examination  be  framed  on 
sound  educational  principles.  A  person  who 
learns  what  he  wants  simply  for  his  private  use, 
may  look  too  narrowly  to  his  immediate  pur- 
pose. Gibbon  tells  us  that  he  originally  picked 
up  Greek  only  to  enable  him  to  get  at  the  con- 
tents of  Greek  books,  and  he  found  that  his 
knowledge  of  the  language  was,  in  consequence, 
very  inaccurate ;  and  persons  who  only  learn  a 
modicum  of  mathematics  for  purely  practical  pur- 
poses, for  navigation  for  instance,  are  thrown  out 
by  any  case  that  deviates  from  the  normal  type, 
and  work  with  an  uneasy  sense  of  the  insecurity 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Kn  on.' I  edge.    353 


of  their  footing.  Thus  study  may  be  cram])ecl 
by  too  exclusive  a  regard  to  practical  use,  just  as 
it  is  by  looking  to  Examinations. 

By  educational  or  student  knowledge  I  mean 
such  as  may  not  be  in  itself  effective,  but  which 
will  serve  as  a  basis  for  real  knowledcre :  1j\- 
artificial  knowledge  I  mean  that  which  is  on]\' 
fabricated  for  Examination  purposes.  There  is  less 
chance  of  meeting  with  this  in  some  subjects  tlian 
in  others,  least  of  all  in  the  case  of  languages. 
For  every  one  who  learns  a  language,  wants  to  be 
able  to  read  it,  write  it,  and  speak  it,  the  very  acts 
he  is  called  on  to  perform  in  Examinations  ;  and 
though  if  it  is  thought  necessary,  in  University 
phrase,  "  to  separate  the  men,"  crabbed  passages 
may  be  picked  out  and  an  artificial  kind  of  reading 
thereby  encouraged,  still  enough  that  is  whole- 
some must  be  learnt  to  make  the  student's  know- 
ledge profitable  for  use. 

With  some  mathematical  subjects  the  case  is 
rather  different ;  for  the  object  of  them  may  be 
to  enable  the  student  to  work  out  practical  pro- 
Ijlems  or  to  proceed  to  higher  investigations,  and 
il  he  cannot  make  these  practical  applications  of 
theorems  and  does  not  go  on  to  higher  investiga- 
tions, then  we  have  an  article  produced  for  Exa- 
minations only.  Some  educational  advantage  may 
1..  2 ; 


354    Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge. 

have  accrued  from  the  study,  but  the  know- 
ledge, looked  at  with  a  view  to  usefulness,  is 
not  what  we  want.  A  student,  for  instance,  may 
"write  out"  Trigonometrical  theorems,  and  yet 
be  far  from  at  home  in  using  logarithmic  tables, 
or  in  applying  what  he  has  read,  to  the  problems 
that  would  actually  arise  in  surveying.  He 
may  have  got  up  his  "  De  Moivre's  Theorem " 
without  any  idea  of  what  it  helps  people  to  do  ;  or 
he  may  have  learned  his  Lunar  Theory,  and  have 
no  notion  of  how  it  is  to  be  applied  to  form 
Lunar  tables,  or  of  how  the  "  coefficients"  in 
his  expressions  are  deduced  from  observations. 
Hence  if  an  Examiner  would  satisfy  himself 
that  a  candidate's  knowledge  is  of  value  for 
scientific  purposes,  he  must  make  sure  that  he 
knows  on  what  experiments  or  observations 
his  science  rests,  how  they  are  performed,  and, 
above  all,  that  he  can  make  use  of  his  know^ledge 
when  he  has  got  it.  To  effect  this  he  must  in- 
troduce some  questions  of  a  different  character 
from  those  usually  set  in  competitive  Examina- 
tions, and  it  may  be  necessary  to  allow  students 
under  Examination  to  have  access  to  jNIathemati- 
cal  Tables  or  other  books  of  reference,  with  the 
use  of  which  they  ought  to  be  familiar. 

Rapidity  of  production  is  not   wanted   in   the 


Exa7ni7iati07is  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge.    355 

case  of  knowledge  that  is  acciuired  for  use  and 
not  for  display;  hence  the  student  should  not 
be  set  to  write  against  time,  nor  should  problems 
be  proposed  to  him  which  do  not  aim  at  bringinL^r 
out  correctness  of  apprehension,  or  the  power  of 
applying  knowledge.  Ingenious  puzzles  may  be 
of  service  in  detecting  cleverness,  but  they  do 
not  test  what  I  am  now  supposing  the  Examiner 
to  be  concerned  to  discover. 

The  most  difficult  subjects  to  deal  with  in 
Examinations  are  the  literary  ones ;  of  these  the 
good  comes  less  from  what  we  recollect  of  the 
matter,  than  from  the  images  formed,  and  tlnit 
trains  of  thought  set  going  and  carried  out  in 
our  own  minds.  History,  and  the  Literature  of 
our  own  and  of  foreign  countries,  are  in  this 
condition,  and  will  serve  for  instances  of  the  class 
of  subjects  I  am  speaking  of. 

The  main  use  of  such  subjects  is  for  the  pupil 
himself;  but  some  of  them  have  also  a  practical 
side.  Eor  instance,  we  may  want  to  find  a 
person  to  edit  old  authors  or  historical  papers 
or  to  write  articles  for  an  Enc)'clopa^dia,  and 
then,  an  Examination  might  be  employed  to 
tell  us  where  to  look  for  people  provided  with 
the  apparatus  of  learning  required.  The  sort  of 
knowledge   wanted   for  this  purpose  is  Just  what 


;},^6     Exaiuinatio7is  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge. 


an  Examination  can  easily  be  made  to  test. 
We  do  not  need  comprehensive  views,  or  the 
wisdom  Avhich  should  result  from  study,  we  only 
Avant  to  see  that  a  person  knows  Jiis  way  about 
the  old  authorities,  that  he  can  read  the  laneuaee 
in  which  they  are  written,  and  knows  what  credit 
to  assign  to  their  statements.  We  want,  in  fact, 
a  man  whose  mind  is  an  index-map  of  the  sub- 
ject, and  who  is  also  an  adept  in  Palaeography. 

We  are  here  dealing  with  the  technical  side 
of  the  study  ;  we  do  not  consider  whether  the 
individual  is  benefited  by  knowing  the  Latin  of 
the  tenth  century,  or  the  dialects  of  the  earliest 
forms  of  other  European  languages,  or  by  being 
able  to  read  the  handwriting  of  the  middle  ages. 
We  regard  these  kinds  of  knowledge  as  tools,  and 
we  are  lookino-  out  for  one  who  can  use  them. 

But  to  leave  this  special  sort  of  Historical 
knowledge  and  to  turn  to  what  is  generally 
understood  by  the  name,  we  have  to  consider 
whether  a  student  reading  with  a  desire  for 
his  own  improvement  would  study  in  the  same 
way  as  if  he  were  reading  for  Examination. 
We  shall  find  some  differences  in  the  mode  of 
proceeding.  A  person  reading  for  Examination 
will  have  to  note  details  and  to  acquaint  himself 
witli    the   terms    of  Statutes,   Proclamations,  and 


Examinations  as  a  Test  of  K)ioiuledgc.     357 


Constitutions,  where  the  ordinary  reader  would 
be  content  with  their  general  purport,  and  he  must 
be  familiar  with  dates  and  genealogies.  So  far 
the  student  knowledge  required  for  Examination 
only  differs  from  that  which  would  be  acquired 
by  a  person  reading  for  his  own  improvement, 
in  being  fuller  and  more  minute;  but  the  main 
difference  between  the  two  cases  is  one  of 
spirit.  A  student  who  is  "getting  up"  an  histo- 
rical book  keeps  his  thoughts  to  his  task,  he  will 
not  follow  suggestions  which  lead  him  off  it.  If 
of  a  discursive  tendency,  he  is  the  better  for 
beinof  thus  tied  down,  but  the  knowledge  he  crets 
savours  of  the  '  lesson.'  He  is  always  asking 
himself  whether  he  remembers  what  he  has  read, 
and  perhaps  he  frames  questions  for  himself  as  he 
goes  on.  The  matured  reader  notes  his  facts  for 
future  reference,  keeps  his  brains  free  for  think- 
ing, and  gladly  treasures  up  the  thoughts  which 
come  into  his  head  as  he  reads. 

Examinations  belong  naturally  to  education, 
and  they  fling  an  educational  hue  on  all  that  comes 
under  their  influence.  To  prepare  for  an  Examina- 
tion in  History  the  student  must  go  over  his  work, 
pen  in  hand,  with  maps  and  tables  of  chronology. 
This  is  adniirable  discipline,  but  it  belongs  to  edii- 
cationat  study;  it  makes  the  well-informed  youth. 


35^    Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knoivlcdgc. 

rather  than  the  wise  man  ;  nothing  but  self-culture 
can  give  an  eye  for  grouping  events  in  due  sub- 
ordination, or  a  mind  peopled  with  historical  cha- 
racters. Students,  however,  would  do  well  to  get 
this  cdiicaiioiial  knowledge,  even  if  Examinations 
did  not  exist,  for  its  intrinsic  value  as  well  as  for 
discipline.  It  is  not  artificial,  it  is  genuine  as 
far  as  it  goes;  it  is  that  part  of  knowledge  which 
can  be  communicated  by  a  teacher,  as  distin- 
guished from  that  which  grows  up  slowly  and  is 
fed  by  observing,  reading  and  thinking.  In  many 
other  cases  we  shall  come  to  this  same  conclu- 
sion, viz,  that  our  ordinary  Examinations  test 
student  knoivlcdgc  well  enough,  but  tell  us  little 
about  that  of  the  savant.  Happily  the  latter  is 
not  in  danger  of  being  long  overlooked  ;  first-rate 
excellence  in  any  department  of  learning  is  sure 
enough  to  find  a  field  for  display  in  time. 

There  is,  however,  a  sort  of  knowledge 
of  history  which  is  got  up  to  be  "written  out;" 
which  does  not  come  from  reading  authors — for  a 
good  author  can  never  be  read  without  profit — ■ 
but  from  compendia  and  tutorial  help;  and  this 
is  artificial,  in  our  sense  of  the  word — it  is 
acquired  for  use  in  Examinations  only.  The 
(essence  of  history  lies  in  its  being  a  chain  of 
events  ;    but   the  examinee  sometimes  resembles 


Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge.    359 


one  who  is  in  possession  of  a  handful  of  the  links 
of  the  chain,  only  they  are  all  loose  in  his  pocket. 
This  may  properly  be  called  "cram."  These  links 
are  scraps  of  information  sometimes  given  b)- 
tutors,  or  taken  down  in  Lectures,  or  "  got  up  " 
from  a  note-book  borrowed  from  a  friend,  or 
looked  out  in  a  manual  the  day  before.  The}' 
consist  of  "short  accounts"  of  "leading  events," 
and  of  "  brief  notices  "  of  "eminent  personages." 

An  Examiner  can  hardly  set  a  paper  so  as 
to  give  no  opening  for  such  scraps  of  information. 
But  when  a  candidate  picks  out  a  date  from  one 
question,  and  a  name  or  leading  event  from  an- 
other, but  treats  no  matter  as  a  whole,  and  there  is 
no  appearance  of  there  being  any  framework  of 
knowledge  in  his  head — anything  to  fit  his  isolated 
facts  into — then  whatever  be  his  aq-crreo-atc  of 
marks,  the  value  of  his  knowledo^e  is  nothinc^^. 

There  is  another  kind  of  spurious  knowledge 
of  a  more  ambitious  description.  It  consists  of 
what  may  be  called  ready-made  "  views."  The 
student  is  always  ready  with  an  opinion  on  the 
leading  questions  of  history,  but  he  has  never 
formed  an  opinion  in  his  life.  "  The  tendencies 
of  events"  and  ''the  influences  of  principles" 
are  described  in  tutorial  manuscripts  and  given 
to  pupils.     An    Examiner  will   be    on  his  guard 


360    Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge. 

when  he  meets  with  stupendous  wisdom,  or  patches 
of  reflection  in  a  different  style  from  the  rest  of 
the  pupil's  work, 

I  would  recommend  as  part  of  an  Examination 
for  testing  the  possession  of  historical  knowledge, 
as  I  did  for  the  testing  of  ability,  that  dissertations 
should  be  composed  on  given  subjects,  and  that 
the  student  should  have  access  while  writing 
to  the  necessary  books  of  reference  and  to  original 
authorities.  By  so  doing  we  should  conform  to 
our  rule.  We  should  see  how  the  student  can 
use  his  knowledge  for  the  purposes  for  which  it 
is  properly  intended,  and  should  free  him  from 
artificial  conditions. 

English  Literature  is,  above  all,  the  sub- 
ject in  which  Examinations  have  called  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  study  into  existence.  A  person 
who  has  read  much,  and  enjoyed  his  reading, 
would  often  be  puzzled  if  he  were  asked  what  he 
had  to  show  for  his  knowledge — many  happy 
hours,  and  a  mind  rendered  alive  to  many  interests, 
he  would  indeed  be  conscious  of — but  this  good  is 
not  of  a  kind  to  be  tested  in  any  Examination. 
Yet  a  well-read  man  carries  a  certain  superiority 
about  him,  and  when  we  are  weighing  the  ad- 
vantages of  competitors,  we  must  give  its  proper 
weight    to    this    superiority;    hence    we    may    be 


Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge,   361 


obliged  to  examine  in  Literature  if  we  want  to 
give  credit  for  all  intellectual  acquirements  ;  and 
we  are  also  forced  to  examine  in  it  on  educa- 
tional grounds,  because  a  subject  which  is  not 
represented  in  Examinations  gets  squeezed  out 
of  sij^ht. 

I  believe  it  to  be  impossible  to  frame  a 
competitive  Examination  in  the  entire  range 
of  English  Literature,  which  shall  not  favour 
the  growth  of  artificial  knowledge,  and  for  this 
reason,  that  a  person  may  be  a  well-read  man 
and  have  derived  o-reat  advantas^es  from  his 
reading,  and  yet  not  be  able  to  produce  any  par- 
ticular knowledge;  and  on  the  other  hand,  a  man 
may  learn  many  things  about  books,  and  may 
commit  many  scraps  to  memory  and  get  marks 
in  Examinations,  and  yet  obtain  no  good  from 
this  knowledge  worth  mention. 

When  a  paper  of  questions  has  to  be  framed 
on  English  Literature,  the  Examiner  is  driven 
to  the  History  of  Literature.  He  can  ask  for 
an  account  of  authors  and  their  works,  and 
the  variations  of  different  editions,  as  also  for 
information  about  the  hard  passages,  for  the 
context  of  familiar  quotations,  and  for  the  names 
of  the  plays  of  Shakespeare  in  whicli  certain 
characters  occur.      But  these  quotations,  etc.,  are 


362     Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge. 

matters  which  might  be  the  accompaniments  of  the 
knowledge  of  a  well-read  person,  but  they  would 
not  constitute  the  gist  of  his  knowledge  itself; 
they  would  in  no  way  represent  the  good  he  had 
got  by  his  reading.  If  he  wanted  such  informa- 
tion he  would  know  where  to  look  for  it,  and  this 
would  serve  his  turn. 

But  when  Examinations  were  applied  to  this 
subject,  these  shreds  and  patches  of  knowledge 
were  found  to  have  e^reat  exchangfeable  value  : 
they  afforded  the  simplest  and  readiest  questions. 
Whether  a  student  entered  into  the  spirit  of  a 
play  of  Shakespeare  we  could  not  find  out.  But 
we  could  set  questions  about  the  explanation  of 
allusions  and  grammatical  peculiarities,  or  on  the 
sources  from  which  the  plays  were  taken,  and  the 
changes  made  in  subsequent  versions.  When  this 
subject  was  first  introduced,  such  knowledge  could 
only  be  obtained  by  something  approaching  to  re- 
search, or  from  a  lecturer  who  had  got  together  all 
there  was  to  say  on  the  subject.  A  student  could 
then  hardly  know  these  little  niceties  except  by 
being  a  literary  person :  they  served  as  symptoms 
of  something  better.  Now,  however,  all  for  which 
lecturers  formerly  used  to  refer  pupils  to  autho- 
rities is  found  in  the  school-books  ;  and  what  is 
meant    by   "English   Literature,"  as   far  as  com- 


Examhiations  as  a  Test  of  Knoiolcdgc.    36 


J 


petitions  go,  consists  mostly  of  the  reproduction 
of  footnotes  and  manuals. 

If  people  must  be  examined  for  such  compe- 
titions in  EngHsh  Literature  an  Essay  to  be  written 
with  access  to  authorities  is  the  best  course  that 
I  can  suggest.  Educational  Examinations  on 
specified  books  or  on  epochs  of  Literature  may  be 
most  serviceable,  but  then  such  Examinations 
must  be  connected  wnth  some  particular  course  of 
instruction.  Educational  Examinations  are  meant 
to  show  that  the  student  has  made  his  own  what 
he  has  been  told  in  Lectures  or  has  been  directed 
to  read,  while  the  Open  Examination  is  a  mart 
for  knowledge  brought  from  any  quarter,  and  in 
this  case  no  particular  kind  of  teaching  can  be 
presupposed. 

III.  I  now  come  to  the  important  point  of 
the  permanency  of  knowledge.  Examinations 
shew  us  the  state  of  the  pupil's  acquirements 
at  a  certain  time.  The  question  then  arises — 
what  judgment  can  we  form  as  to  how  long 
this  state  will  last  ?  Our  conclusion  must  be 
uncertain  if  it  be  based  on  Examination  only,  but 
least  so  in  the  case  of  what  I  have  called  "  Art 
Subjects."  For  the  knowledge  to  have  borne  as 
its  result  a  power  of  doing  something,  it  must 
have    been    assimilated,   and    as   assimilation    re- 


364    Exaininations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge. 

quires   time,   it  must  have  been   present   to   the 
pupil's  mind  for  a  long  time:  thus  one  condition 
required  for  permanence  is  secured  (see  page  333). 
About  "Art  Subjects,"  then,  I  need  only  make 
two  remarks,     (i)  The   durability  increases  with 
the    thoroughness    of   the   knowledge,  and    in   a 
higher  ratio,  that  is  to  say,  if  A  knows  twice  as 
much  as  B,  A's    knowledge    will   last,   not   only 
twice,  but  three  or    four   times   as  long  as   B's. 
Here  our  judgment  turns  on  what  the  Examina- 
tion can  shew,  viz.  the  perfectness  of  the  know- 
ledge,    {2)  The  more  labour  the  mind  has  under- 
gone in  connexion  with  the  subject,  the  deeper  the 
impression  will  generally  be  engraved  on  it. 

Knowledge  which  is  imbibed  unconsciously, 
such  as  the  French  or  German  picked  up  from 
conversation,  soon  disappears;  it  depends  on  ear, 
and  when  the  ear  ceases  to  supply  the  phrase 
required,  the  learner  is  unable  to  put  one  together. 
To  arrive  at  a  probable  estimate,  therefore,  of  the 
durability  of  knowledge,  even  in  the  case  of  these 
"Art  Subjects,"  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account 
the  mode  in  which  the  knowledge  has  been  ob- 
tained. 

With  regard  to  subjects  learned  for  the  in- 
formation they  furnish,  the  case  is  more  com- 
plicated. 


Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knoiv ledge.    365 

Few  people  are  aware  how  completely  a  small 
quantity  of  such  knowledge  disappears,  especially 
if,  when  after  being  poured  out  in  an  Examination, 
it  is  thought  to  be  "  done  with."      When  men  of 
learning    frame    schemes    for   general    Examina- 
tions, such  as  those  in  the  University  of  London, 
each  savant  is  likely  to  urge  the  introduction  of 
his  own   science.     For  the  University  to  ignore, 
as   it   is    called,  a  branch    of  knowledge,   that  is 
to  say,  to  omit  it  from  the  Examinations,   is  to 
give  an  opening  for  attack  to  its  adversaries.     No 
educated  man,  it  will  be  said,  should  be  ignorant  of 
this  or  that  science:  this  may  be  so,  but  an  Exa- 
mination does  not  ensure  such  knowledge  ;  where 
bits  of  eight  or  nine  subjects  are  taken  in  at  once  to 
an  Examination,  the  traces  of  them  left  in  the 
pupil's  mind  at  the  end  of  a  month  will  be  hardly 
worth  considering.     All  that  the  Examination  tells 
us  for  certain  is,  that  those  who  have  passed  have 
been  able  to  carry  in  their  heads  for  a  short  time 
a  certain  quantity  of  matter  out  of  a  book.     We 
may  extract  answers  in  English  History,  Physical 
Geography  and  Moral  Philosophy,  and  may  boast 
of  the  broad  character  of  our  system,  but  to  sup- 
pose  that    the    successful    candidate    necessarily 
knows  something  about  these  subjects  is  a  delu- 
sion ;  all  that  we  have  found  out  is,  that  he  has 


;66    Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge. 


been  able  to  "get  up"  so  many  subjects  for  Exa- 
mination, and  that  he  could  therefore  probably 
"get  up"  these  same  again,  or  different  ones, 
if  he  should  require  to  do  so. 

I  shall  now  note  some  of  the  circumstances 
which  are  favourable  for  the  retaining  of  what  is 
learnt. 

I.  The  first  requisite  for  remembering  a 
matter  is  that  it  shall  have  made  strong  im- 
pression, and  that  this  impression  shall  have  had 
time  to  fix  itself. 

We  recollect  that  best  which  it  took  pains 
and  time  to  learn.  What  we  get  by  being  simply 
told  is  soon  foro-otten — the  student  who  finds  all 
his  work  done  in  a  translation,  and  uses  it,  not  to 
see  whether  he  has  made  the  passage  out  correctly, 
but  to  avoid  having  to  make  it  out  at  all,  learns 
nothing.  What  we  puzzle  out  for  ourselves  re- 
mains by  us  longest;  that  which  is  explained  by  a 
tutor  before  we  feel  the  difficulty  soon  goes.  Hence 
it  is  that  the  reading  of  solutions  of  problems  is  of 
so  little  value  compared  with  the  working  of  them 
for  ourselves.  In  fact,  in  this  case,  as  in  most 
others,  no  possession  of  value  is  to  be  got  without 
corresponding  effort,  and  to  get  what  is  of  lasting 
good  we  require  sustained  exertion. 

2.     The  frequent  recovery  of  an  idea  is  what 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knoivlcdge.    367 


seems  to  grave  it  most  deeply  in  the  mind  ;  the 
process  of  recalling  it  seems  to  .clear  out  the 
tracings  on  the  cerebrum  which  mif^ht  be  fillin"; 
up,  and  our  memory  gets  a  fresh  date  to  start  from. 
Hence  a  system  of  Examinations  which  obliges  a 
student  often  to  review  his  old  stock  of  knowledge 
helps  much  to  confirm  him  in  the  possession  of  it, 
3.  As  long  as  we  think  that  we  are  likely 
to  want  a  certain  kind  of  knowledge,  we  keep 
it,  often  without  being  aware  of  it,  stored  in 
our  mind,  and  it  ripens  by  ''  unconscious  cere- 
bration." In  the  intervals  between  visitinor  a 
foreign  country  we  may  almost  drop  the  language, 
but  if  our  knowledge  of  it  have  taken  root,  we 
may  find  on  our  return  that  after  awhile  we  speak 
it  better  than  before.  Mathematical  and  other 
scientific  conceptions  also  work  themselves  clearer 
in  this  way,  even  without  conscious  study,  pro- 
vided the  conditions  required  for  this  unconscious 
ripening  are  observed.  The  first  of  these  is  that 
we  should  not  feel  that  we  have  done  with  the 
subject  for  ever.  When  we  experience  this  sen- 
sation,— like  a  boy  who  escapes  into  a  modern 
department,  and  burns  his  classical  books,— all 
the  creases  in  our  brain,  so  to  speak,  caused  by 
this  study,  seem  to  be  smoothed  out,  and  the 
mind,  on  this  subject,  becomes  a  blank. 


o 


68    Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge. 


Secondly,  for  this  ripening  to  go  on,  the  mind 
must  not  be  distracted  or  chsturbed  by  a  rapid 
succession  of  different  sorts  of  action.  I  once 
heard  of  pupils  preparing  for  a  very  heterogeneous 
Examination,  whose  morning  course  was  this. 
"A  master  in  French  comes  for  an  hour,  then 
we  go  to  a  lecture  in  chemistry  for  an  hour:  this 
is  followed  by  an  hour  of  English  Literature, 
then  an  hour  of  Greek,  and  then  one  of  Mathe- 
matics." Here  there  would  be  no  possibility  of 
the  ripening  process  going  on,  for  no  knowledge 
could  strike  root.  A  certain  amount  may,  in  such 
cases,  be  kept  suspended  in  the  mind  till  it  has 
to  be  discharged,  but  this  is  all.  Just  as  one 
faculty  has  got  into  action  it  is  stopped,  and 
another  part  of  the  machinery  is  set  in  motion, 
this  must  jar  the  whole  fabric,  and  there  is  an 
excitement  in  this  constant  change  which  after  a 
while  becomes  necessary  to  the  pupils.  When 
pupils  have  been  trained  under  such  a  system,  it 
is  difficult  to  bring  them  to  apply  their  minds 
under  a  less  stimulating  one.  The  evil  of  this  is 
more  apparent  with  young  men  than  with  boys. 

4.  Again,  for  us  to  carry  a  subject  in  our 
minds  it  must  form  a  whole — fragments  are  trou- 
blesome to  carry  and  are  soon  dropped — I  do  not 
mean   that  a  science  must  be  mastered  in   its  full 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     369 

extent,  but  the  portion  of  it  learned  must  be  so 
complete  in  itself  that  it  shall  be  possible  to-  re- 
gard it  in  one  view,  and  to  use  it  for  the  purpose 
proper  to  the  subject.  If  we  have  been  learning 
a  language  and  stop  at  the  grammar,  it  disappears 
in  a  moment;  but  if  we  can  speak,  write,  and 
read  it,  then  the  lano^uaj^e  has  griven  us  a  new 
nationality  and  it  abides  by  us. 

So,  if  we  learn  any  science,  we  must  get  be- 
yond the  information  stage  for  it  to  rest  in  our 
minds.  By  the  information  stage  I  mean  that 
in  which  we  get  the  results  of  science  told  us,  as 
useful  information,  without  arriving  at  them  by 
investisfation.  Such  is  the  sort  of  knowledcre 
commonly  furnished  by  a  popular  lecture ;  we 
may  go  away  pleased  to  have  become  acquainted 
with  certain  facts,  but  if  we  have  no  grasp  of 
any  principles  which  hold  them  together,  and  no 
general  conceptions  which  we  can  apply  to  what 
we  see  about  us,  then  our  knowledge  will  have 
no  principle  of  vitality,  it  cannot  renew  itself. 

5.  The  nature  of  the  knowledge  has  much 
to  do  with  its  permanency. 

The  kinds  of  learning  which  result  in  an  "Art," 
as  I  have  already  said,  are  the  most  permanent  of 
all.  In  the  case  of  these  the  foregoing  conditions 
are    all    fultilled.       But    of    the    other    kinds    of 


370      Exatninations  as  a    Test  of  Knowledge. 

learning  some  are  more  abiding  than  others. 
The  more  compactly  a  body  of  matter  is  held 
together  by  a  system,  the  more  easily  it  is  carried 
in  the  mind. 

The  kinds  of  learning  which  are  made  up  of 
ramifications  from  a  moderate  number  of  fun- 
damental truths  or  laws  or  principles,  are  much 
more  lasting  mental  possessions  than  those  which 
are  made  up  of  detached  facts.  For  instance, 
French  Et)'mology,  in  which  certain  laws  of 
derivation  from  vernacular  Latin  are  of  general 
application,  is  more  easily  remembered  than 
English  Etymology,  which  has  few  laws. 

Again,  many  physical  sciences  are  wrapped  up 
in  a  few  elementary  principles  which  can  easily  be 
carried,  more  especially  as  they  may  be  recalled 
by  what  may  be  seen  every  day  by  one  whose 
eyes  have  been  opened  to  the  ways  of  Nature. 
The  brightness  of  a  crack  in  the  window-pane, 
for  instance,  the  height  of  the  December  full 
moon  in  the  heavens,  the  unequal  lengthening 
of  forenoons  and  afternoons,  and  a  hundred  things 
of  the  same  sort,  serve  to  exercise  pleasantly  the 
student's  recollections  of  Optics  and  Astronomy. 

To  know  the  why  and  the  wherefore  even  of 
such  simple  facts  is  real  knowledge,  as  far  as  it 
goes  :   to  have  trained  his  eye    to   mark   natural 


II 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     371 

laws  in  operation  makes  a  man  happier  and  fuller 
of  resource.  If  we  want  a  pupil's  knowledge  of 
Physics  to  last  for  life,  we  should  try  to  bind  it  up 
with  what  he  may  see  day  by  day ;  and  it  will  help 
to  give  him  the  habit  of  being  observant,  if  in  the 
Examination  papers  which  guide  his  reading  he 
sees  that  the  explanations  of  familiar  phenomena 
are  asked  for  as  illustrations  of  principles. 

The   above   remarks  apply  with  still  greater 
force  to  Chemistry  and  its  kindred  sciences,  which 
require  work  in  a  laboratory  or  workshop.     The 
examiner  should  ascertain  whether  such  work  has 
been  duly  performed;  when  it  has  been  so  the  resi- 
duum of  knowledge  that  will  be  permanent  will 
be    considerable.     Any   manual   facility  that   has 
been  acquired  remains  by  its  possessor;  and  this 
facility,    in  the   case    of   Chemistry,  &c.,  is    con- 
nected with  knowledge  and  will  keep  it  alive.     In 
all  Experimental  Physics  the  student  should,  if  pos- 
sible, have  instruments  given  into  his  own  hands, 
and  be  made  to  use  them  for  himself;  for  instance, 
he  might  be  set  to  find  the  specific  gravities  of 
substances.     P'"or  the  teacher  to  perform  the  pro- 
cess while  the  student  looks  on,  is  a  very  difi'erent 
thing,  especially  if  the  latter  does  not  expect  to 
be  called  on  to  perform  the  experiment  for  him- 
self. 

24 — 2 


o/- 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 


In  answer,  then,  to  the  question  proposed, 
"  How  far  can  we  judge  by  Examination  of  the 
length  of  time  that  a  student's  knowledge  is  likely 
to  last?"  we  reply  that  by  far  the  most  important 
requisite  is,  as  seems  natural,  that  the  knowledge 
must  be  thorough  enough  to  be  readily  used. 
A  man  w^ho  can  read  French  as  easily  as  he 
can  English  is  sure  to  take  up  a  French 
1  ook  now  and  then  ;  but  one  who  has  to  turn 
to  a  dictionary  v/ill  not  do  so  unless  he  de- 
signedly sits  down  to  study.  So,  also,  in  subjects 
which  turn  on  information.  Very  exact  and 
complete  information  fulfils  most  of  the  above 
conditions.  Moreover,  a  person  is  better  inclined 
to  keep  up  a  study  from  having  attained  excellence 
or  distinction  in  it;  for  it  will  then  be  stored  away 
on  the  sunny  side  of  his  memory,  to  which  he 
most  readily  turns. 

If,  then,  we  want  knowledge  that  should  be 
permanent  and  useful,  we  should  be  satisfied  with 
nothing  less  than  very  thorough  knowledge;  but 
if  we  are  forced,  from  professional  or  other  needs, 
to  put  up  with  partial  knowledge,  we  should  as- 
certain that  this  knowledge  has  been  slowly  taken 
in,  and  not  run  hastily  up  in  a  few  weeks  in  order 
to  be  poured  out  in  an  Examination  and  then 
done  with  for  ever. 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     2)7 2> 


Again,  we  should  have  more  hope  that  the 
knowledge  of  a  subject  would  last  if  it  were 
taken  in  to  an  Examination  by  itself  than  if  it 
were  one  out  of  many  branches  of  knowledge 
taken  at  once;  and  we  should  prefer  a  system 
in  which  the  subjects  are  carried  on  from  Exa- 
mination to  Examination,  a  part  at  one  time  and 
a  part  at  another,  to  one  in  which  each  is  cleared 
off  in  a  single  Examination. 

There  are  some  subjects,  which  are  bundles  of 
detached  facts,  like  English  Etymology,  and  some 
parts  of  English  Law,  in  which  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  examine  for  educational  or  other  purposes, 
but  of  the  retention  of  which  we  can  never  make 
sure  unless  they  are  constantly  in  use.  A  person 
may  pass  a  creditable  Examination  on  a  given 
day  on  such  points,  and  be  unable  to  answer  a 
single  question  on  that  day  month.  This  same 
person  could,  however,  recover  his  knowledge  in 
a  short  time.  These  are  subjects  which  ought 
to  be  entrusted  to  the  "  Index  memory"  above 
spoken  of.  The  student  only  wants  to  know 
that  such  knowledge  is  to  be  had,  and  where 
to  find  it.  Even  if  a  lawyer  did  recollect  the 
substance  of  a  case  in  point,  he  would  not  be 
justified  in  citing  it  without  having  previously 
turned  to  it.      It  would  have  saved  editors  a  vast 


74     Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Kftowlecige. 


deal  of  trouble  if  some  writers  of  sfreat  erudition 
had  taken  this  proper  precaution  with  regard  to 
their  quotations  and  statements. 

We  have  now  considered  the  three  points  that 
came  before  us,  viz.,  the  extent,  the  suitableness, 
and  the  durability  of  a  student's  knowledge.  In 
all  cases  we  have  found  that  the  subjects  which 
yield  a  faculty  which  we  can  see  in  action  are 
the  most  easy  to  deal  with.  They  have  this 
additional  advantage,  that  they  in  general  require 
little  special  preparation  to  be  fit  for  production  in 
an  Examination.  A  person  has  his  Latin  and 
Greek  and  French,  so  far  as  the  mei^e  languages 
go,  always  about  him.  But  the  knowledge  of 
a  true  classical  scholar  involves  something  of  a 
higher  kind,  and  this  difference  causes  difficulties 
in  the  relative  adjustment  of  "marks"  in  Com- 
petitive Examinations. 

A  modern  language  affords  the  best  instance 
of  a  subject  learned  solely  for  its  value  as  an 
acquisition.  That  a  man  can  speak  and  write 
French  tells  us  nothing  for  certain  about  his 
ability,  or  his  powers  of  application.  He  may 
have  picked  it  up  abroad  as  his  mother  tongue, 
and  whether  this  has  been  the  case  or  not,  the 
more  nearly,  in  learning  it,  he  follows  the  process 
by  which  a  child  learns  to  speak,  the  sooner  he 


Examinations  as  a    Test  of  Knowledge.     375 

will  acquire  it,  but  it  will  not  serve  as  a  mode  of 
educatinof  his  faculties  so  well  as  if  learned 
by  grammatical  analysis.  He  goes  through  few 
conscious  mental  processes,  and  therefore  he  gets 
little  training  from  the  study;  but  he  does  not 
want  to  get  education,  but  to  know  French.  And 
thus  the  French  master  very  properly  aims  at 
producing  a  system  which  will  enable  people  to 
learn  French  with  the  least  possible  call  on  their 
brains,  whereas  an  educator  XooV.'s,  first  to  the  kinds 
and  amount  of  brain  action  that  he  can  call  into 
play  in  his  pupil  through  his  teaching. 

This  difference  between  modern  languages  and 
the  more  educational  subjects  causes  a  difficulty 
when  such  a  lanofuaofe  is  made  in  an  Examination 
to  rank  against  subjects  of  the  other  description. 
This  difficulty  is  the  greater  because  French  or 
German  w^jj/be,  and  at  English  Schools  often  are, 
taught  just  as  if  they  were  dead  languages.  Less 
is  thereby  learnt  of  them,  but  more  general  good 
is  got  from  the  process.  Hence  to  judge  fairly  of 
ability  or  application  in  such  cases,  we  ought  to 
know  by  what  method  the  pupil  has  been  taught, 
though  if  we  only  want  the  accomplishment 
itself  this  does  not  matter. 

On  this  account  Modern  Languages  are  not 
well  suited  for  an  arena  for  a  contest  of  wits.    They 


376     Examinations  as  a    Test  of  Knowledge, 

cause  uncertainty  in  the  Indian  Civil  Service 
Examinations;  and  where  it  has  been  attempted 
to  award  Prizes  or  Scholarships  to  them  at  the 
great  Schools  or  the  Universities,  it  has  been 
found  that  this  amounted  to  giving  a  man  a  prize 
for  being  of  foreign  extraction,  or  having  had  a 
Swiss  nurse,  or  having  been  brought  up  abroad. 
Those  who  did  not  possess  some  such  advantage 
would  not  venture  to  compete,  and  the  prize 
failed  to  encourage  the  study.  Yet  if  no  ad- 
vantao-es  are  attached  to  a  knowledp;e  of  Modern 
Lan^uafres,  all  attention  is  turned  to  more  remune- 
rative  subjects  ;  and  as  we  confessedly  want  young 
men  to  know  modern  languages,  we  are  in  a 
dilemma. 

One  solution  that  has  been  attempted  is  to 
introduce  into  the  Examination  what  I  may  call 
literary  knowledge  of  the  language  as  contrasted 
with  zt/f^r/vV/f'- knowledge,  for  example,  "Historical 
Grammar,"  Philology,  and  the  History  of  the 
Literature  of  the  country.  This,  no  doubt,  would 
tell  against  those  who  had  only  the  knowledge 
of  an  uncultivated  native  ;  but  still  a  great  advan- 
tagfe  would  remain  with  a  cultivated  native. 

By  this  mode  of  treatment,  however,  we  give 
a  new  character  to  the  study,  and  its  claims  to 
consideration  arc  no  lonircr  the   same  as  before. 

O 


Exa7ninations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     377 

Modern  languages  rest  their  claims  greatly  on 
their  usefulness  ;  but  an  acquaintance  with  obso- 
lete forms  and  dialects,  though  interesting,  is  not 
useful  knowledge.  German  philology  involves  an 
acquaintance  with  Mo^so-Gothic,  which  is  as  much 
a  dead  language  as  Greek.  An  acquaintance 
with  the  Lay  of  the  Nibelungen  is  a  possession, 
of  the  same  kind  as  a  knowledge  of  the  Iliad. 
One  takes  as  much  time  as  the  other  to  acquire  ; 
and  they  are  of  about  the  same  service  in  the 
business  of  life.  The  History  of  a  Foreign  Lite- 
rature as  a  subject  of  examination  is  open  to  the 
objection  which  is  made  to  Examinations  in  that 
of  Enoflish  Literature,  but  the  reasons  for  intro- 
ducing  it  as  an  optional  subject  may  in  particular 
cases  outweigh  the  objections.  It  should  be  kept 
distinct  from  the  Examination  in  the  Language. 

I  would  resolve  the  dilemma  in  a  more  trenchant 
way  and,  except  in  case  of  marked  excellence, 
remove  modern  Languages  from  the  Competitions, 
but  exact  a  serviceable  acquaintance  v^ith  them, 
as  being  desirable,  and  often  necessary  accomplish- 
ments, by  means  of  a  qualifying  Examination, 

They  are  quickest  and  best  learned  in  early 
youth,  say  from  12  to  15,  and  in  the  countries  in 
which  they  are  spoken:  they  require  but  little 
head  ;   the}'  ma)'  be  picked  up  by  ear  at  a  time 


^^yS     Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 

when  a  boy  usually  learns  little,  and  though,  if 
dropped,  they  will  be  quickly  forgotten,  they  may 
be  kept  up  by  the  three  hours  a  week  spared 
for  them  at  English  schools.  A  boy  might  trans- 
late his  Latin,  on  paper,  into  French,  and  read 
his  Physical  Science  in  French  books. 

In  this  way  modern  languages,  considered 
linguistically,  would  not  be  brought  into  the  same 
account  with  more  strictly  educational  studies,  with 
which  it  is  difficult  to  compare  them,  though  high 
excellence  in  translation,  or  in  the  rendering  of  a 
version,  might  carry  credit  for  the  competition, 
because  excellence  of  any  kind  shews  a  mental 
power.  In  Examinations  on  leaving  school  or 
entering  the  University,  Modern  Languages  would 
find  their  proper  place :  a  knowledge  of  one  at 
least  might  be  expected. 

We  come  then  to  this.  Where  a  subject  is 
wanted  purely  for  utility,  and  is  of  a  different 
nature  from  educational  studies,  it  should  be  made 
the  subject  of  a  preliminary  Examination,  which 
might  give  a  certificate  of  mere  qualification,  and 
also  one  of  merit.  The  certificate  of  merit  would 
be  rated  at  varying  values  for  the  competition 
according  to  the  intelligence,  accuracy,  and  power 
of  expression  displayed.  Supposing  that  it  is  de- 
sirable that  all  Indian  officials  and  all  officers  in 


Examinatio7is  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge.     379 

the  army  should  know  French,  I  would  exact  a 
serviceable  knowledge  of  that  language  in  a  pre- 
liminary Examination. 

There  are  few  subjects  in  which  knowledge 
is  so  purely  regarded  as  a  useful  acquisition 
as  it  is  in  the  case  of  languages.  The  direct 
tisefidncss  of  knowledge  for  practical  purposes, 
excepting  strictly  professional  knowledge,  is  so 
small  as  to  be  discouraging  to  the  teacher.  Peo- 
ple boast  in  the  presence  of  the  young  that  they 
have  got  on  very  well  without  knowing  anything, 
and  there  are  indeed  few  occasions  in  actual  life 
in  which  a  person  suffers  seriously  from  his  ignor- 
ance. Even  in  the  case  of  professional  know- 
ledge, science  and  practice  are  less  closely  united 
in  England  than  they  are  abroad.  Three  out  of 
four  successful  English  barristers  owe  their  ad- 
vancement more  to  their  insight  into  human 
nature  and  their  practical  sense  than  to  a  philoso- 
phical knowledge  of  Law.  In  England  a  "lead- 
ing lawyer"  means  a  leading  advocate ;  but  in 
Germany,  where  there  is  more  of  scientific  system 
in  legal  procedure,  promotion  comes  more  from 
the  State  than  from  the  public,  and  the  lawyer's 
claims  often  rest  on  his  learned  treatises  or  his 
repute  as  a  jurisconsult.  Scientific  Law  comes 
so  little   into  common  practice  in   England   that 


380     Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 

we   have  to  enforce  a  knowledge  of  it  by  Exa- 
minations backed  by  Prizes. 

We  must  come  to  the  same  conclusion  as 
to  competitions  in  the  display  of  knowledge  that 
we  did  when  speaking  of  ability;  we  cannot  nicely 
discriminate  between  degrees  of  knowledge,  for 
we  can  only  explore  certain  provinces  of  learn- 
ing, and  even  in  them  we  may  pass  over  some 
regions  in  which  the  particular  strength  of  one 
candidate  may  lie ;  but  we  can  make  sure  that  a 
person  who  does  well  possesses  high  attainments, 
and  that  one  who  makes  blunders  of  certain 
kinds  is  altogether  unsound.  We  cannot  say  that 
a  person  about  whom  we  form  a  judgment  may 
not  possess  more  knowledge  than  we  see  dis- 
played, or  that  he  might  not  extend  some  descrip- 
tions of  it  considerably  in  a  short  time  :  in  other 
cases  we  might  see  that  he  had  reached  his  limit, 
as  was  explained  in  the  last  chapter  (p.  243). 

WHiat  we  can  gauge  most  closely  is  the  degree 
in  which  students  have  drawn  advantage  from  a 
prescribed  course  of  study.  This  leads  us  to 
conclude  that  we  should  not  attempt  to  make  nice 
distinctions,  except  where  the  Examinations  are 
connected  with  some  such  course.  All  Exa- 
minations, as  I  have  said,  imply  pupillage ;  the 
older   a    student    is,    the    less    is    the    discipline 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     381 

they  afford  needed  for  his  case,  and  therefore 
the  less  he  should  be  shackled  by  the  trammels 
of  close  competition.  Examinations  used  for 
testing  knowledge  should  be  like  those  which  the 
student  would  frame  for  himself  in  order  to  direct 
his  work,  and  to  shew  him  whether  he  had  really 
learned  what  he  wanted  to  know. 

I  now  come  to  a  practical  point.  In  some 
Examinations — that  for  the  Indian  Civil  Service, 
for  instance — various  kinds  of  knowledge  are  com- 
prised, and  marks  are  to  be  assigned  to  each. 
Can  we  find  any  principles  to  guide  us  in  fixing 
the  proportions  in  which  we  are  to  allot  the 
marks  ?  We  may  object  to  the  system,  but  that 
will  not  justify  us  in  evading  the  question. 

Not  to  embarrass  ourselves  with  two  con- 
siderations at  once,  we  will  for  the  present  suppose 
that  all  the  branches  of  knowledge  comprised  in 
the  Examination  are  of  equal  utility,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  marks  due  to  each  will  then  depend 
on  certain  elements  which  enter  into  the  cost  of 
production. 

(i)  There  are  some  kinds  of  knowledge  to 
which  only  a  few  choice  intellects  can  attain. 
High  mathematics,  first-rate  classical  scholarship, 
and  parts  of  mental  philosophy,  arc  of  this  order. 
A  high  value   must  be  assigned  in  a  competition 


38 2     Examinatio7is  as  a   T^cst  of  Knozvledge. 

to  studies  requiring  these  peculiar  faculties,  or 
those  who  possess  them  will  seek,  and  in  the 
present  state  of  things  will  probably  find,  some 
other  sphere  where  their  peculiar  powers  are  better 
appreciated.  If  any  desired  product  could  only  be 
raised  on  an  exceptionally  rich  soil,  it  would  on 
this  account  be  more  costly  :  this  answers  to 
the  case  before  us. 

(2)  Other  kinds  of  knowledge  stand  near  the 
top,  as  it  were,  of  a  long  ladder,  which  the  learner 
must  have  climbed  rung  by  rung  to  reach  them. 
A  person  cannot  take  up  a  book  on  the  Polarisa- 
tion of  Light,  or  on  Greek  Philology,  and  begin 
on  it  without  being  versed  in  preparatory  studies ; 
but  if  he  want  to  instruct  himself  in  History,  or 
Political  Philosophy,  or  Physical  Geography,  he 
requires  no  such  special  apparatus,  but  only  what 
a  fair  education  would  have  provided  him  with. 
The  time  and  labour  required  for  providing  this 
special  apparatus  are  elements  in  the  value  of 
the  knowledge,  and  must  be  considered.  A  ques- 
tion which  arises  in  elementary  Examinations  may 
be  noted  in  illustration.  A  knowledge  of  the 
sixth  book  of  Euclid  involves  that  of  the  previous 
ones.  Are  we,  in  marking  a  proposition  in  the 
sixth  book,  to  take  account  of  the  labour  required 
to  arrive  at  it,  or  only  of  its   intrinsic  difhculty 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knoiulcdgc.     383 

and  value  ?  INIy  answer  would  be,  that  if,  in 
a  miscellaneous  paper,  we  set  a  single  question 
in  Euclid,  and  that  one  taken  from  the  sixth 
book,  we  should  attach  to  this  the  value  which 
we  assign  to  a  knowledge  of  Euclid  as  an  entire 
subject ;  but  if  we  set  a  paper  with  propositions 
from  each  book  of  Euclid,  the  candidate,  in 
doing  the  paper,  obtains  credit  for  his  know- 
ledge of  each  book,  and  therefore  the  proposi- 
tion in  the  sixth  book  must  only  be  valued  for 
its  intrinsic  difficulty.  Eor  educational  purposes 
a  little  extra  credit  may  be  given  to  the  latter  part 
of  a  subject,  because  pupils  get  weary ;  and  it 
may  be  necessary  specially  to  reward  those  who 
"  keep  on  to  the  end." 

(3)  We  have  also  to  consider  the  length  of 
time  it  takes  to  learn  a  subject  in  the  case  of  a 
pupil  of  fair  intelligence  who  is  properly  taught. 
The  old  question  then  arises,  as  to  how  we  are  to 
suppose  the  subject  to  have  been  acquired.  This 
especially  affects  modern  languages.  My  sugges- 
tion (p.  'ij']^')  would  remove  the  difficulty,  but  I 
must  deal  with  things  as  they  are. 

To  learn  German  passably  in  England,  by 
grammar  and  dictionary,  will  take  two-thirds  of  the 
time  required  to  learn  as  much  Greek.  But  a 
valuable    knowledcfe    of    it    can    be    obtained    in 


384     Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge. 

Germany  much  more  quickly.  How  are  we  to 
rate  these  languages  ?  I  think  it  safest  to  suppose 
all  goods  to  be  purchased  in  the  cheapest  market, 
supposing  always  that  no  educational  evil  results 
from*so  doing.  I  should,  then,  so  far  as  the  con- 
sideration of  time  goes,  rate  German  on  the  sup- 
position that  it  is  learned  in  Germany,  because 
an  English  boy  may  very  well  go  to  a  German 
gymnasium. 

There  may  be  cases  in  which  a  vicious  system 
of  cram  would  offer  the  shortest  road  to  some 
kinds  of  learning;  but,  in  that  case,  the  Examina- 
tion should  be  recast  as  regards  those  subjects. 
At  any  rate,  it  would  be  essential  not  to  over-mark 
a  subject  which  offered  such  a  temptation. 

Another  point  is  this.  Those  subjects  which 
require  a  master,  and  especially  those  which  must 
be  taught  for  a  long  period  in  youth,  should  carry 
more  weight  in  examinations  of  young  men, 
than  those  which  a  person  can  learn  for  himself 
whenever  he  has  a  mind.  These  studies  will 
otherwise  be  superseded  by  others  which  can  be 
got  directly  they  are  wanted,  and  this  may  do 
harm.  For  if  a  student  do  not  learn  the  former 
as  a  pupil,  he  will  never  learn  them  at  all,  and  will 
thereby  be  shut  out  from  those  fields  of  knowledge 
to  which  these  studies  give  access.      For  instance, 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.    385 

a  person  who  has  never  learned  geometry  at 
school  is  not  likely  to  begin  it  in  after  life,  and  is 
thereby  precluded  from  knowing  anything  properly 
of  any  physical  science.  Hence  the  kinds  of 
learning  which  require  that  a  youth  should  have 
had  schooling,  and  which  must  have  been  taught 
him  at  school,  should  in  an  Examination  of  young- 
men  be  more  highly  considered  than  subjects 
which  can  be  acquired  later  in  life. 

But  instead  of  fixing  what  I  may  call  the 
market  values  of  different  kinds  of  knowledge,  by 
the  relative  cost  of  production,  we  may  in  some 
cases  be  guided  by  their  relative  utility.  When 
we  know  exactly  what  kinds  of  knowledge  the 
successful  candidates  will  require,  in  what  degree 
each  is  essential,  and  what  difficulties  or  facilities 
they  will  have  in  perfecting  a  kind  of  knowledge 
after  they  are  started  on  their  duties,  we  have  all 
the  data  wanted  for  properly  apportioning  the 
credit  to  be  given  to  the  various  subjects.  In 
this  case,  even  if  the  subjects  be  fitted  for  a  liberal 
education,  they  are  regarded  in  a  technical  spirit  ; 
the  candidates  will  be  reading  with  a  particular 
prospect  in  view,  and  will  only  aim  at  reaching 
a  certain  standard  in  each  subject  required.  If  ii 
is  desired  that  particular  attention  should  be  pai<l 
to  a  particular  study,  all  that  will  be  necessary 
L.  25 


386    Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 


will  be  to  mark  it  highly  and  to  set  a  high  stand- 
ard for  qualification.  When  we  want,  then,  to 
test  specific  qualifications  the  case  is  compara- 
tively simple. 

The  Further  Examination  for  the  Indian  Civil 
Service  affords  an  instance.  Its  object  is  to  ascer- 
tain that  candidates  are  fitted  to  exercise  certain 
duties,  and  it  is,  therefore,  a  qualifying  Examina- 
tion, with  enough  advantage,  in  the  way  of  prizes 
and  seniority  in  the  Service,  attached  to  doing 
well,  to  give  a  student  the  requisite  interest. 

This  Examination  comprises  Law,  Indian  Lan- 
guages, the  History  of  India,  and  rudiments  of 
Political  Economy.  The  highest  marks  are  al- 
lotted to  Law,  because  this  knowledge  is  essential 
for  the  Indian  official,  and  can  rarely  be  attained 
in  India;  the  languages  are  less  highly  marked, 
because  a  civilian  can  hardly  help  perfecting  him- 
self in  these  afterwards ;  and  the  other  subjects 
carry  comparatively  little  weight,  because  they 
are  not  essential  and  can  be  studied  without  help 
from  teachers  whenever  a  knowledge  of  them  is 
required. 

If,  in  allotting  the  marks  to  our  subjects  in 
a  Competitive  Examination,  we  have  to  take  the 
s;)-called  cost  of  production  and  also  the  utility 
of  different   kinds   of   knowledge  into   considcra- 


\ 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  K)ioiulcdgc.    387 


tlon   at   the  same  time,   we  shall  be   involved  in 
difficulties   similar  to  those  which  met  us  in   the 
case    of  modern    languages.      We    shall    then  be 
considering  knowledge  partly  as  the  criterion  of 
ability  and  of  the  mental  training  got  from  a  liberal 
education,  and  partly  as  a  qualification  for  par- 
ticular duties.      If  a  person  cannot  set  about  his 
duties  without  a  certain  knowledge,  the  value  of 
this  knowledge  to  him,  mathematically  speaking, 
is  infinite — it  must  be  made  a  sine  qua  non:  but  if  a 
kind  of  knowledge  is  not  likely  to  come  into  practical 
use  till  the  student  is  high  in  his  profession — as 
is   the  case  with    Jurisprudence    in   the    Law,  or 
Political    Philosophy    in    the    Civil    Service — the 
value   of  this   lies  in  its  furnishing  a  proof  that 
the  student  knows  how  to  set  about  applying  to 
such   studies,   and   can  take  clear  views  of  their 
principles.       What    he    has   actually   learned   for 
Examination  will  have  been  forgotten  long  before 
occasion  comes  for  its  use,  and  possibly  will  have 
become  antiquated  before  that  time.     When  utility, 
then,  has  to  be  taken  into  account,  we  must  under- 
stand whether  a  kind  of  knowledge  is  wanted  for 
immediate  use  or  not.      If  it  be,  a  suftlcient  amount 
must  be  rigorously  exacted,  and  if  in  the  display 
of  this  the  candidate  shews  that  he  can  seize  on 
the   gist  of  a   matter,  grasp   it   firmly  and   j)ut   it 

25  —  2 


3 88    Exaini7iations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 

forcibly,  this  should  carry  marks  in  the  competi- 
tion, as  indicating  the  kind  of  ability  we  want. 
But  the  subjects  on  which  the  competition  is  to 
turn  should  be  marked  on  the  principles  above 
laid  down.  To  overmark  an  easy  subject  because 
it  is,  or  may  be,  useful,  is  to  leave  a  weak  point 
which  will  certainly  be  taken  advantage  of.  By 
restricting  the  subjects  of  competition,  to  those 
which  are  useful  for  the  object  in  view,  we  force 
candidates  to  adopt  a  special  kind  of  preparation, 
and  thereby  we  limit  the  area  from  which  we 
draw  our  candidates,  as  will  appear  below. 

In  the  Examination  for  the  Selection  of  candi- 
dates for  the  Indian  Service,  which  precedes  that 
just  spoken  of,  the  object  is  to  obtain,  not  young 
men  with  special  attainments,  but  those  who  are 
likely  to  make  efficient  public  servants.  It  was 
therefore  wisely  determined  that  the  Examination 
should  turn,  not  on  what  was  likely  to  be  of 
service  in  the  position  contemplated,  but  on  the 
ordinary  subjects  of  a  liberal  education.  Had 
it  been  otherwise  the  competition  would  have 
been  confined  to  those  who  were  disposed  to  risk 
their  whole  education  on  the  chance  of  success, 
for  the  special  knowledge  wanted  for  the  Indian 
Service  would  not  have  fitted  them  for  English 
professional  life.      The  aim    of  the    Examination 


Examiiiations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.    3S9 


was  to  secure  ability,  but  it  was  necessary  to 
admit  knowledge  as  evidence  of  this  ability ; 
and  it  is  on  this  ground  that  I  consider  this 
Examination  in  this  chapter  instead  of  in  the  last. 
Knowledge,  as  we  have  seen,  is  only  an  indirect 
measure  of  ability  :  some  kinds  of  knowledge,  "  art 
subjects"  for  instance,  represent  it  better  than 
others,  and  excellence  in  a  few  points  shews  in- 
finitely more  of  it  than  mediocrity  in  many.  But 
an  Examination  directed  solely  to  picking  out  the 
clever  men  would  have  had  a  much  worse  educa- 
tional effect  than  that  which  is  in  use — it  would 
have  generated  a  straining  after  point  and  effect, 
and  an  affectation  of  premature  wisdom.  The 
difficulty  of  framing  an  Examination  to  effect 
what  is  wanted  without  doingr  educational  mischief 
is  caused  in  a  great  degree  by  the  variety  and 
irregularity  of  secondary  education  in  England. 
In  Germany  such  difficulties  do  not  exist.  If 
the  Government  there  wanted  to  select  candi- 
dates for  appointments  they  would  know  that 
they  would  all  have  been  educated  at  Gymnasia 
much  in  the  same  way.  But  in  England  the 
Examination  must  be  fair  for  persons  educated 
in  different  ways :  this  involves  the  offering  of  a 
very  wide  option  of  subjects.  The  framers  of  the 
scheme  might  estimate  the  subjects  according  as 


390   Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knoiulcdge. 


they  brought  out  abilit)'  or  valuable  habits  of 
mind  :  but  in  markinof  them  one  asfainst  the 
other,  the  chief  point  to  be  considered  would  be 
the  cost  of  production,  because  if  a  subject  were 
overmarked — as  was  once  the  case  with  Italian 
in  the  I.  C.  S.  Examination — it  would  be  largely 
taken  in,  to  the  exclusion  possibly  of  more  desira- 
ble knowledge;  and  if  undermarked — as  was  once 
the  case  with  mathematics — it  would  soon  be 
taken   in   only  by  a  few. 

If  ever  such  an  inequality  exist  in  the  relative 
marking  of  subjects,  indications  of  it  will  appear 
after  a  few  •  trials.  When  the  weaker  men  are 
found  to  take  in  very  generally  a  subject  that 
would  not  usually  come  into  a  regular  educational 
course,  it  may  be  suspected  that  this  offers  them 
some  undue  advantage ;  probably  some  way  has 
been  discovered  of  communicating  enough  of  it  to 
bring  in  a  good  share  of  marks,  in  a  shorter  time 
than  the  Examiners  reckoned  upon:  it  may  have 
been,  for  instance,  reduced  to  a  matter  of  mere 
memory,  or  put  into  such  a  shape  that  the  tutor 
can  do  for  the  pupil,  what  it  was  supposed  he 
would  have  to  do  for  himself.  Again,  if  a  number 
of  students  who  have  failed  in  one  trial,  select  a 
particular  subject  as  an  additional  one  to  increase 
their  weight  of  metal  in  a  subsequent  conflict,  it 


Examinations  as  a    Test  of  Knoivlcdgc.    39 1 

may  be  suspected  that  this  subject  is  overmarked 
in  relation  to  the  time  it  takes  to  learn. 

The  ablest  men,  indeed,  will  not  care  thus 
to  pry  into  the  system  in  search  of  a  weak  point 
— they  know  that  they  can  carry  the  position  by  a 
front  attack— but  when  fifty  candidates  have  to 
be  chosen,  the  last  twenty  taken  and  the  first 
twenty  rejected  do  not  differ  much  in  calibre, 
and  a  sufficient  difference  in  the  marks  to  decide 
success  may  be  due  to  a  nice  perception  cf  an 
advantage  offered  by  one  subject  or  another. 

The  relative  productiveness  of  subjects  depends 
of  course  on  the  relative  difficulty  of  the  papers 
set  in  them,  and  on  the  proportion  of  questions  that 
can  be  done  in  the  time  allowed.  One  Examiner 
may  have  a  higher  standard  of  excellence  than 
another,  and  one  subject  may  yield  marks  more 
freely  than  another.  For  instance,  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  candidates  can,  in  general,  get  three- 
fourths  of  the  marks  in  a  translation  paper  than 
can  do  so  in  a  mathematical  paper.  This  must 
be  allowed  for.  Tutors  arrive  at  a  marvellous 
intuition  as  to  the  subjects  which  each  candidate 
had  best  select,  and  can  predict  his  "  score  "  with 
great  accuracy — indeed  a  talent  of  this  sort  is  a 
main  requisite  for  one  who  makes  preparation 
for   these   Examinations  his  special  work. 


392    Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 

As  I  have  said,  it  does  not  matter  much,  as 
regards  the  actual  convenience  of  the  service  even 
if  a  few  of  those  selected  do  owe  their  position 
to  skilful  tactics,  because  so  many  are  accepted 
that  the  list  extends  down  to  the  "  great  plateau 
of  mediocrity,"  and  with  the  candidates  in  that 
region  the  intellectual  differences  vanish  as  com- 
pared with  moral  ones,  such  as  the  differences  in 
volition  and  energy,  about  which  Examinations 
can  tell  us  nothino^.  But  all  that  encourages 
tactics,  all  that  leads  a  man  to  trust  to  cunning, 
and  to  glory  in  outwitting  the  Examiner,  has  a 
deteriorating  effect ;  when  a  student  reads  in  a 
narrow  spirit,  every  sentence  is  considered  as  to 
its  probability  of  being  set,  and  when  the  Exa- 
mination is  past,  all  reading  seems  to  him  intoler- 
ably flat  from  the  want  of  being  seasoned  with 
this  gambling  element  to  which  he  has  been 
accustomed.  This  evil  in  some  degree  attends  all 
Examinations,  though  it  does  not  become  serious 
unless  they  are  too  often  repeated  ;  but  it  is  in- 
creased by  its  being  supposed  that  there  is  room 
for  adroit  management,  and  for  this  there  is 
more  scope  when  the  subjects  are  numerous  and 
some  more  productive  of  marks  than  others.  This 
idea  leads  to  the  study  of  Examination  papers, 
and  to  the  looking  too  narrowly  to  an  inwicdiate 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Kiiozvlcdgc.    393 

return.  By  avoiding  inequalities,  then,  we  reduce 
the  educational  mischief,  and  this  is  worth  our 
consideration,  even  as  regards  selection  only,  be- 
cause by  the  prolonged  operation  of  a  bad  influence, 
the  mass  of  candidates  may  so  deteriorate,  that  we 
may  hereby  lose  more,  than  we  gain  by  the  in- 
crease of  the  probability  of  getting  the  best  among 
them  for  the  Public  Service. 

This  chapter  would  be  incomplete  without 
some  notice  of  what  I  have  called  Pass  or  Quali- 
fying Examinations — such  Examinations  should 
indeed  be  framed  chiefly  according  to  the  edu- 
cational needs  they  are  to  answer ;  but  still  we 
may  want  to  know  how  far  we  can  trust  to  them 
as  indicatinor  a  serviceable  knowledo^e  of  the  sub- 
jects  they  comprise.  They  are  the  means,  almost 
the  only  means,  of  causing  young  men  of  moderate 
ability  and  powers  of  application,  to  exercise  their 
brains;  and  the  subjects  should  be  chosen,  and  the 
course  of  Examination  planned,  more  with  the  view 
of  keeping  the  mind  of  the  student  in  action,  than 
with  the  idea  of  measuring  his  capacity,  or  with 
regard  to  the  value  of  what  the  pupil  will  carry 
away  with  him.  The  matter  acquired  goes  for 
little  in  the  case  of  the  duller  young  men,  in  com- 
parison with  the  importance  of  educating  their 
will   and  srivincf  them  the  use  of  tlieir  brains  and 


394   Examinations  as  a    Test  of  Knozuicdgc. 


the  power  of  working  when  they  feel  disIncHned. 
These  Examinations  also  exercise  an  effect  on  the 
parents.  Without  them,  the  sons  of  the  wealthy 
would  often,  owing-  to  parental  indulgence  and  in- 
difference to  educational  discipline \  grow  up  not 
only  in  ignorance  but  in  torpor  of  mind  :  the  Ex- 
aminations which  now  stand  at  the  portals  of  most 
professions  do  for  the  wealthier  classes  what  the 
School  Board  does  for  the  poor.  But  though  men- 
tal exercise  may  be  the  first  thing  to  be  considered 
in  framing  a  course  of  study,  the  steps  of  which  are 
to  be  marked  out  by  Pass  Examinations,  yet  some 
kinds  of  this  exercise  will  result  in  a  little  know- 
ledge or  in  a  few  conceptions  which  enlarge  the 
mind,  or  in  some  accomplishment  which  may  be 
kept  in  use  by  the  ordinary  occasions  of  life  (I 
am  not  speaking  of  professional  knowledge),  while 

'  Mr  Trevelyan,  Life  of  Macaulay,  p.  335,  observes  well  on  this  point : 
"It  is   throwing  away   money  to    spend    a  thousand  a   year  on   the 
education  of  three  boys  if  they  are  to  return  from  school  only  to  find  the 
older  members  of  the  family  intent  on  amusing  themselves  at  any  cost  of 
time  and  trouble." 

Mr  Gladstone  once  oliserved  that  there  was  never  a  lime  when  the 
wealthy  classes  in  England  seemed  so  devoted  to  amusement.  Wealthy 
men,  however,  often  work  extremely  hard,  but  their  work  is  out  of  sight,  it 
is  done  at  the  office,  and  the  home,  which  alone  the  young  people  know, 
is  the  ])lace  of  holiday  and  relaxation  ;  thus  the  young  are  impressed  with 
the  idea  that  enjoyment  is  the  business  of  life,  from  the  work  being  put  out 
of  their  siglit.  Parents  who  have  little  time  for  i>leasure  themselves  seem  to 
get  a  palpable  return  for  their  labour  in  the  pleasures  they  can  afford  to 
their  children. 


Iixaniinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.    395 


others  yield  nothing  beyond  the  exercise  itself. 
Some  of  these  last  may  Ljive  kinds  of  exercise  so 
essential  for  growing  brains  that  their  advantage 
in  this  respect  may  more  than  counterbalance  their 
want  of  utility ;  this  is  a  question  for  the  edu- 
cator. What  I  have  here  to  consider  is,  what  the 
knowledge  or  the  degree  of  accomplishment  ac- 
quired for  pass  examinations  by  young  men  of 
moderate  powers  is  worth  as  an  actual  possession. 

Some  subjects  of  study  will  yield  a  larger 
residuum  than  others,  and  some  modes  of  study 
will  be  more  productive  than  others  both  in  point 
of  knowledge  and  training ;  there  may  also  be 
methods,  (see  p.  53,)  which  will  give  small  results 
but  much  mental  profit,  while  others  may  enable 
the  student  to  produce  a  considerable  quantity 
at  a  given  time,  without  his  deriving  any  perma- 
nent good  either  from  the  process  of  learning  or 
from  what  he  has  got  temporarily  into  his  head. 

The  modes  of  learning  which  yield  permanent 
knowledge  are  also  in  most  cases  those  which 
confer  most  good  as  training,  hence  we  may  take 
the  conditions  which  I  have  laid  down  as  condu- 
cive to  the  durability  of  knowledge,  pp.  366 — 369, 
and  apply  them  to  the  case  before  us — recollecting 
always  that  the  class  of  students  under  considera- 
tion can  seldom  advance  far  in  a  subject,  and  that 


39^   Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 

they  can  seldom  carry  any  considerable  amount  of 
information  in  their  heads  for  long  together. 

The  improvement  produced  by  undergoing  a 
course  of  Examinations  is  most  seen  in  the 
increased  power  of  catching  the  point  of  questions 
and  in  expressing  the  answers.  "  Paper  work,"  as 
it  is  called,  is  burdensome  to  schoolmasters,  and 
the  duller  pupils  are  therefore  seldom  well  trained 
in  '^ writing  out" :  but  they  are  necessarily  much 
practised  in  this  when  they  have  to  be  prepared 
for  a  paper  Examination.  This  improved  power 
of  expression  is  likely  to  last  because  it  is  called 
into  play  whenever  pen  is  put  to  paper. 

Different  subjects  add  to  mental  wealth  in 
different  ways  and  degrees.  The  advantage  of 
Geometry  lies  chiefly  in  mental  training,  but  in 
undergoing  this  training,  the  dullest  student  can 
hardly  help  getting  some  clearer  conceptions 
with  regard  to  space,  and  these  may  continue  by 
him  through  life.  He  may  likewise  retain  a  know- 
ledge of  Arithmetic  and  possibly  of  Algebra  which 
may  be  considered  to  have  value.  With  regard 
to  the  physical  sciences,  such  as  Mechanics,  Heat, 
&c.,  their  value  as  acquirements  will  depend  very 
much  on  the  degree  in  which  the  pupil  has  been 
trained  to  observe  common  pha'nomcna  and  apply 
his  principles  to  the  explanation  of  them.     History 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.    397 


and  Geography  are  the  subjects  which  offer  the 
most  frequent  examples  of  ludicrous  errors  :  these 
often  shew  that  the  pupil  has  been  only  trying  to 
tack  wo7'ds  together,  for  instance  the  name  of  a 
battle  and  its  commander,  a  country  and  its  capital, 
and  a  few  such  errors  shew  that  the  whole  of  the 
knowledge  displayed  is  of  a  flimsy  and  worthless 
description  :  the  remarks  made  p.  346  will  apply 
to  this  case. 

With  regard  to  languages  it  should  be  ob- 
served that  the  preparation  of  "  set  subjects " 
shews  no  knowledge  of  the  language  worth  speak- 
ing of.  Such  subjects  are  necessary  for  class 
teaching,  and  if  properly  chosen  and  treated  so  as 
to  shew  a  thorough  comprehension  of  the  author 
and  a  knowledge  of  what  is  wanted  in  order  to 
understand  the  book  thoroughly, — if  for  instance 
a  Greek  play  is  treated  as  a  play  of  Shakespeare 
would  be, — they  may  be  of  great  value  as  a 
nucleus  for  much  improving  teaching,  and  they 
supply  very  definite  work. 

But  as  such  a  subject  will  practically  be  pre- 
pared either  with  a  "crib"  or  by  taking  down  the 
translation  given  by  a  teacher,  no  confidence  can 
be  placed  in  a  knowledge  of  it  as  shewing  ac- 
quaintance with  the  language.  I  should  therefore 
strongly  urge  the  introduction  in  Pass  Examina- 


398    Exaininations  as  a   Test  of  Knoiu ledge. 


tions  of  what  are  called  "unseen"  passages.  In 
the  case  of  Latin  and  Greek  these  would,  in  the 
present  state  of  education,  have  to  be  very  easy 
if  any  considerable  proportion  of  candidates  are 
to  pass.  Rather  than  give  up  requiring"  the  trans- 
lation of  such  passages,  I  would  allow  the  use  in 
the  Examination  of  an  approved  Lexicon.  If  a 
youth  can  make  out  a  passage  by  this  means  he 
must  have  learnt  the  language  in  the  way  we  wish 
him  to  do,  and  his  knowledge  will  amount  to  some- 
thing,  though  possibly  to  but  little.  With  regard 
to  the  Natural  Sciences  I  must  refer  to  the  obser- 
vations made  before,  only  I  would  say  emphati- 
cally that  for  the  knowledge  to  be  worth  any- 
thing at  all  it  must  be  practical. 

An  important  point  in  such  Examination,  is 
the  number  of  subjects  it  may  contain.  The  "pass 
men"  can  seldom  apply  themselves  to  one  subject 
sufficiently  long  at  a  time  to  occupy  the  hours  that 
they  might  fairly  be  expected  to  give  to  study, 
neither  can  they  go  far  in  one  thing,  but  they  are 
distracted  and  distressed  by  too  large  a  number 
of  incongruous  subjects.  Hence  the  proper  num- 
ber must  be  arrived  at  by  educational  considera- 
tions and  by  the  character  of  the  course  of  study 
which  is  connected  with  the  Examination.  I  con- 
sider that   not    more    than    three    distluct  studies 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.    399 


should  be  com[)rised  in  one  Examination,  l)ut  two 
or  three  books  or  subjects  in  one  study  might  be 
taken  in,  such  as  two  books  in  a  language,  or  two 
or  more  subjects  in  Mathematics. 

The  Examination  may  be  made  difficult  in 
two  ways  ;  by  increasing  the  number  of  subjects 
in  each  of  which  it  is  necessary  to  pass,  or  by 
exacting  a  high  standard  in  a  few  subjects. 

I'or  instance,  if  candidates  \vere  required  to 
pass  in  each  of  a  dozen  subjects,  nearly  the  whole 
of  an  ordinary  batch  would  fail,  and  yet  those  who 
succeeded  might  know  nothing.  If  a  thorough  pro- 
hciency  even  in  a  few  subjects  is  exacted  weak  men 
will  not  pass,  whatever  pains  they  may  take,  but 
those  who  do  pass  will  have  a  knowledge  of  some 
value.  But  if  w^e  reduce  the  number  of  subjects 
too  far,  without  raising  the  standard  considerably, 
if  for  instance  we  allow  candidates  to  take  one 
or  two  subjects  at  a  time,  and  require  only  a  mode- 
rate proficiency,  our  series  of  Examinations  will 
not  serve  to  sift  out  the  incapable,  and  will  be 
no  guarantee  of  the  knowledge  of  those  who  pass, 
for  some  will  have  got  through  by  reading  only 
half  the  subject. 

The  real  value  of  all  Pass  Examinations  de- 
pends on  the  teaching  with  which  it  is  associated. 
When    the    Examination    is    held    up    as    a   chal- 


400    Examinations  as  a  Test  of  Knowledge, 

lenge  to  all  comers,  success  in  it  is  a  very  un- 
certain kind  of  criterion.  If  the  programme  con- 
tain scraps  of  eight  or  ten  different  subjects  in 
each  of  which  the  candidate  must  satisfy  the 
Examiners,  then  the  system  is  unwholesome  in 
itself.  Its  evil  effects  maybe  mitigated  by  judi- 
cious teaching,  but  they  will  be  intensified  if  the 
youth  perceives  that  his  teacher  does  not  believe 
in  his  getting  good  from  what  he  is  learning,  but 
is  only  helping  him  over  an  obstacle,  which  for 
some  inscrutable  reason  he  has  to  surmount. 

What  the  passing  of  a  qualifying  Examination 
principally  shews,  besides  memory,  is  a  certain 
degree  of  moral  power,  and  if  we  know  nothing  of 
the  circumstances  under  which  the  youth  has 
learned,  we  can  judge  but  very  imperfectly  of  this 
moral  power.  He  may  have  been  forced  through 
one  Examination  by  having  been  kept  under 
the  eye  of  a  master,  and  out  of  the  way  of  all 
temptation,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  he  will  ever 
be  able  to  pass  another  of  no  greater  difficulty. 
He  may  have  got  too  old  for  scholastic  com- 
pulsion, and  be  incapable  of  any  kind  of  self 
direction.  Failures  at  the  University  come  more 
from  impotency  of  will  than  from  incapacity  of 
any  other  kind  ;  next  to  this  from  impatierice. 

\Vc  have  now  considered  the  action  of  Exami- 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     401 

nations  when  employed  to  test  knowledge.  We 
found  that  when  they  were  employed  to  test 
ability,  they  might  lead  to  the  hypertrophy  of  a 
certain  set  of  faculties  or  to  the  development  of 
mere  adroitness  or  to  a  straining  after  point  and 
profundity:  so  also  we  have  seen  in  the  present 
chapter  that  when  we  are  in  quest  of  knowledge 
an  evil  of  another  kind  is  engendered.  When 
the  pupil  is  to  get  credit  or  profit  from  the  display 
of  knowledge,  the  tutor  may  give  him  more  help 
than  is  good  for  him;  he  may  do  all  the  headwork 
for  him,  and  only  expect  him  to  recollect  what 
he  is  told.  In  both  cases  an  unwholesome  in- 
fluence is  exerted  by  Examinations  being  used 
for  a  purpose  which  does  not  belong  to  them 
considered  as  educational   appliances. 

The  knowledge  that  is  got  by  much  telling 
and  sheiuing  on  the  part  of  the  tutor  is  much 
less  permanent  than  that  which  is  due  to  good 
work  done  by  the  pupil  himself,  but  while  it  lasts 
it  is  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  this,  and 
it  brings  its  possessor  profit  in  Examinations. 
A  man  can  be  got  over  more  country  by  being 
carried  over  every  ditch — but  then  he  never  learns 
to  leap;  so  pupils  go  farther  by  having  every  diffi- 
culty forestalled,  but  they  do  not  learn  to  use  their 
brains  and  depend  on  themselves.  If  we  only 
L.  26 


402     Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 


want  to  use  the  knowledge  and  not  the  man,  we 
do  not  care  whether  he  has  been  overhelped  or 
not  so  that  he  can  give  us  the  assistance  we  want. 
Society  needs,  however,  only  a  few  experts,  for 
the  knowledge  belonging  to  one  man  may  be  made 
to  serve  many,  but  she  wants  as  many  intelligent 
men  as  she  can  get. 

The  ill  effects  just  spoken  of  shew  themselves 
most  in  the  weakest  men  :  strong  mental  constitu- 
tions soon  throw  off  the  effects  of  ill-judged  treat- 
ment and  have  energy  to  spare  for  perfecting 
their  healthy  growth.  So  that  if  the  standard 
be  fixed  so  high  as  to  exclude  all  but  really  able 
men,  the  ills  arising  from  a  vicious  mode  of  pre- 
paration will  hardly  appear;  but  if  a  large  pro- 
portion of  candidates  have  to  be  selected,  many  of 
them  will  shew  the  effects  of  such  evil  training, 
and  those  who  fail  will  have  suffered  still  more. 

Examinations,  when  used  as  tests,  attach  re- 
wards to  certain  results  of  education  which  may  or 
may  not  be  proportional  to  the  improvement  of 
the  pupil;  and  therefore  they  may  engender  a 
system  of  education  which  sacrifices  everything  to 
getting  these  results  at  the  time  when  they  are 
wanted  for  exhibition.  In  educational  leeislation, 
results  are  convenient  things  to  go  by ;  we  can 
tabulate  the  number  of  boys  v.'ho  have  arrived  at 


Exami7iations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     403 

this  or  that  point,  and  to  get  them  forward  is,  no 
doubt,  one  object,  but  if  it  be  overvalued,  the 
teacher  is  led  to  aim  at  pushing-  on,  rather  than  at 
extracting  all  the  good  from  each  lesson. 

I  arrive  then  at  the  following  practical  con- 
clusions. Examinations,  regarded  as  appliances 
in  education,  should  be  directed,  not  primarily  to 
discovering  ability  or  knowledge,  but  as  sanc- 
tions to  systems  of  teaching.  They  should  serve 
as  landing-places,  to  portion  out  the  course,  and 
give  an  object  to  teachers  and  pupils  in  pur- 
suing a  definite  track.  So  far  as  they  are  used 
to  see  that  a  pupil  has  done  properly  what  he 
has  been  given  to  do,  there  is  no  drawback  to  their 
use.  Examinations  based  on  such  principles  may 
serve  the  purpose  of  selection  well  enough,  inas- 
much as  great  nicety  of  discrimination  is  not 
attainable,  nor  indeed  is  it  really  required.  All 
kinds  of  ability,  which  are  cognizable  by  Ex- 
aminations at  all,  and  knowledgfe  of  all  sorts, 
except  that  which  is  special  and  recondite,  may, 
I  believe,  be  brought  out  sufficiently  for  our 
practical  needs  by  Examinations  which  are  adapted 
to  educational  systems ;  and  this  affords  the  only 
prospect  I  see  of  escape  from  the  difficulties 
which  attend  the  use  of  Examinations. 

When    all    the    students  have  had    the   same 

26 — 2 


404     Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge. 

work  given  them  to  do,  the  same  time  to  do  it  in, 
and  much  the  same  kind  of  teaching,  we  can 
classify  them  as  to  "  merit "  more  satisfactorily  than 
when  they  may  have  had  very  different  advan- 
tages ;  and  when  an  educating  body  has  the  con- 
trol of  the  Examinations,  they  can  take  precautions 
for  preventing  the  evil  arising  from  over-eager- 
ness in  competing.  Hence  the  performances  of  a 
pupil  in  a  series  of  Examinations,  connected  with 
a  definite  course  of  instruction,  afford  a  better 
criterion  for  judging  of  him,  than  does  a  display 
in  an  Examination  open  to  all  comers,  and  they 
also  enable  us  to  judge,  in  some  degree,  of  moral 
qualities  such  as  application  and  perseverance. 

Examinations  counteract  the  desultory  ten- 
dency in  young  men,  and  supply  discipline  by  en- 
forcing definite  work;  they  therefore,  as  has  been 
said,  keep  candidates  in  a  state  of  pupillage.  But 
when  men  have  passed  beyond  the  time  for  pupil- 
lage and  should  be  a  law  to  themselves,  it  does 
them  harm  to  be  kept  in  leading-strings.  Self- 
direction  is  a  quality  which  is  not  expected  early 
in  life  :  youths,  we  know,  even  though  they  may 
be  ready  to  apply  themselves  to  work  when  it  is 
given  them,  can  rarely  find  work  for  themselves 
and  set  themselves  to  it.  Examinations  do  this 
IVm'  them;  they  supply  this  direction  from  without. 


Examinations  as  a   Test  of  Knowledge.     405 


but  if  they  be  continued  too  late  in  life,  they  may 
prevent  its  ever  coming  from  within:  besides, 
they  discourage  spontaneity  and  independence 
of  judgment.  licncc  we  should  not  continue 
Examinations  beyond  the  age  of  twenty-two,  ex- 
cepting when  a  guarantee  is  wanted  of  Special 
or  Professional  knowledcre  which  is  to  be  turned 
to  actual  use,  and  such  Examinations  need  not 
be  and  should  not  be  of  a  closely  competitive 
character. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PRIZE     EMOLUMENTS     IN     EDUCATION. 

We  have  had  occasion  from  time  to  time  to 
glance  from  the  mechanism  of  education,  to  which 
the  subject  we  are  considering  belongs,  to  the 
forces  which  keep  this  train  of  machinery  at  work. 
The  motives  which  lead  people  to  study  are  the 
forces  in  question.  These  motives  are  much  the 
same  as  those  which  actuate  men  in  other  courses. 
If  a  life  of  study  supplies  these  for  itself,  that  is  to 
say,  if  learning  brings  profit  or  pleasure  enough  to 
remunerate  the  learner,  then  there  will  be  no  need 
of  interference,  but  if  it  do  not,  and  we  want  to 
have  learned  men,  then  we  must  supply  these 
motives  in  a  direct  form. 

I  must  now  refer  to  what  I  have  said  in  the 
second  chapter,  pp.  66  to  69,  to  shew  the  kind  of 
advantages  accruing  to  society  at  large  from  having 
many  highly  educated  members. 

Whether  the  existence  of  a  class  of  culti- 
vated persons  in  the  country  is  worth  what  it  may 


Prize  Emoluments  in  Edtuation.         407 

cost  to  obtain,  is  a  question  for  the  public.  If 
there  be  no  want  of  such  cultivation  and  no  use 
for  it,  there  is  an  end  of  the  matter  :  but  if  such 
a  cultivated  class  is  desired,  as  contributing  to  the 
credit  or  well-being  of  the  nation,  money  must  be 
spent  in  order  to  get  it.  First-rate  genius,  it  is 
true,  will  neither  be  forced  nor  suppressed ;  no 
emoluments  will  bribe  it  into  existence,  and  no 
neglect  will  extinguish  it  :  but  of  such  geniuses  we 
only  see  three  or  four  in  an  age.  There  are  in  the 
country  however,  many  young  men  of  assiduity 
and  intelligence,  who  may  have  a  very  consider- 
able share  of  intellectual  tastes,  and  who,  though 
not  geniuses,  may  do  good  literary  and  scientific 
work.  The  destination  of  these  persons  in  life 
will  be  determined  by  the  ordinary  considerations 
which  Influence  men,  viz.  by  the  prospects  of 
pecuniary  profit,  social  position,  and  congenial 
work;  under  the  last  head  we  must  take  into 
account  the  pleasure  which  some  find  in  the 
pursuit  of  knowledge  "for  its  own  sake."  This 
expression  is  somewhat  vague,  and  its  exact 
meaning  will  be  considered  further  on. 

When  parents  have  to  plan  out  a  future  for 
their  sons,  they  must  be  governed  by  considera- 
tions of  prudence.  The  advantages  of  a  high 
cultivation  in  giving  a  young  man  a  better  use  of 


4o8  Prize  Emohijueiits 

his  faculties  are  not  definite  enough  to  justify  a 
person  of  hmited  means  in  incurring  the  outlay  for 
his  son.  Even  if  the  student  be  supported  at  the 
University  by  Scholarships,  still  he  must  expend 
time  and  labour  to  sfet  this  cultivation.  Durinij 
this  time  his  contemporaries,  without  doing  harder 
work,  may  be  making  their  way  to  a  maintenance. 
The  parent  will  look  to  some  counterbalancing 
advantage;  this  may  be  offered  in  the  form  of  the 
chance  of  a  Fellowship ;  for  speculative  returns  set 
men  to  work  in  all  lines  of  life,  and  to  aim  at  a 
Fellowship  is  to  embark  in  a  sort  of  venture. 
Again,  the  youth  himself  may  have  a  taste  for 
study,  but  still  he  may  require  a  prospect  of  re- 
compense for  the  drudgery  of  learning,  not  as  an 
amateur,  but  in  the  most  thorough  manner  possible. 
INIany  persons  find  pleasure  in  drawing,  but  few 
will  go  through  a  course  of  perspective  and  ana- 
tomical studies,  unless  they  have  to  earn  their 
bread  by  their  pencil. 

We  conclude  then  that  the  hio-hest  kind  of 
education  or  attainment,  is  a  sort  of  crop  which 
does  not  remunerate  the  producer  so  directly  as  to 
make  it  likely  that  it  will  be  grown  unless  some 
special  market  for  it  be  provided. 

Society,  at  present,  desires  that  such  a  crop 
should  be  grown,  and  therefore  it  provides  remune- 


in  Education.  409 


ration  in  the  several  forms  of  Scholarships,  Fellow- 
ships, and  Government  appointments  which  at  pre- 
sent offer  this  special  market  for  it.  The  awarding 
of  these  Civil  Service  appointments  by  Competitive 
Examinations,  makes  Fellowships  or  some  Uni- 
versity rewards  of  the  kind  a  necessity,  if  we  do 
not  wash  the  best  intellect  of  the  country  to  be 
drawn  off  to  official  employments.  Moreover, 
these  appointments  are  often  awarded  at  so  early  an 
age,  that  candidates  for  them  cannot  have  com- 
pleted the  full  course  of  studies  required  for  the 
hlofhest  education.  Such  education  micjht  therefore 
disappear,  or  become  confined  to  a  small  class, 
if  no  equivalent  advantages  were  held  out  at 
the  Universities  as  recompenses  for  a  prolonged 
and  complete  course  of  liberal  mental  cultivation. 

In  short,  such  liberal  cultivation  is,  in  itself, 
partly  of  the  nature  of  a  luxury,  and  as  we  cannot 
expect  a  man  to  accept  a  luxury,  however  m.uch  he 
may  appreciate  it,  in  payment  for  work  done  for 
our  satisfaction,  we  must  provide  some  solid  re- 
muneration, or  at  least  the  hope  of  it,  if  we  expect 
such  work  to  be  performed.  If  we  do  not,  it  will 
be  squeezed  out  of  existence,  by  pursuits  which 
lead  at  once  to  a  maintenance,  that  is,  by  mere 
"  bread  studies,"  which  are  said  to  be  absorbing 
young  men  now,  even  in  Germany. 


4IO  Prize  Einohnnents 

Hence  we  see  that  endowments  spent  on 
fostering  learning,  such  as  Fellowships,  are  not 
eleemosynary,  because  they  are  bestowed,  not  out  of 
compassion,  but  with  a  view  to  obtaining  "valuable 
consideration"  for  the  expenditure:  the  donors 
meet  with  due  return  for  their  gift,  and  part  of 
the  money  so  spent  goes  not  to  the  candidates 
but  to  the  teachers  (see  p.  69).  Scholarships  are 
indeed  eleemosynary  in  certain  cases,  as  when 
they  are  appropriated  to  a  particular  class,  clergy- 
men's sons  for  instance,  or  to  a  certain  district. 
For  appropriation  usually  implies  a  low  standard 
of  qualification,  and  the  profit  to  society  arising 
from  giving  an  average  youth  greater  opportu- 
nities than  he  otherwise  would  have  had,  is  not 
appreciable.  Some  youths  who  through  benefac- 
tions are  led  to  come  to  the  University  might  per- 
haps be  more  useful  to  society  if  they  engaged  at 
once  in  the  work  of  life.  But  where  we  find  the 
special  ability  which  marks  the  material,  out  of 
which  men  of  learning  or  science  are  made,  and  its 
possessor  is  enabled  by  means  of  an  endowment 
to  turn  his  peculiar  gift  to  the  use  of  mankind, 
this  is  not  an  eleemosynary  application  of  funds, 
because  society  is  enriched  by  the  cultivation 
of  a  rare  faculty  which  would  be  lost  without 
such  assistance. 


in  Education.  4 1 1 


A  youth  selected  for  such  help  who  turns  idle 
is  not  performing"  his  part  of  a  bargain.  Some- 
times young  people  regard  the  Scholarships 
not  as  entrusted  to  them  for  their  improve- 
ment, but  as  something  that  they  have  earned 
by  past  exertions ;  taking  this  view,  the  Scholar- 
ship goes  only  to  stimulate  work  at  scJiool,  a 
function  which  more  properly  belongs  to  school 
Exhibitions.  If  the  student  on  obtaining  a  Scholar- 
ship on  admission  to  a  College  conceives  that  his 
work  is  done  and  turns  idle,  the  money  is  wasted 
or  does  positive  harm,  so  that  the  power  of  with- 
drawing a  Scholarship  when  the  progress  of  the 
student  is  unsatisfactory  should  always  be  retained 
and  exercised  on  occasion. 

If  the  candidate  be  in  cfood  circumstances  and 
would  come  to  the  University  whether  he  got  the 
Scholarship  or  not,  the  only  good  that  arises  from 
the  expenditure  lies  in  the  stimulation  of  school 
work  and  in  the  moral  advantage  which  it  is  to 
the  son  of  a  rich  parent  to  feel  that  he  has  earned 
something  for  himself.  This,  though  not  very 
tangible,  is  not  altogether  to  be  disregarded,  be- 
cause the  sons  of  wealthy  persons  are  sometimes 
injured  for  want  of  feeling  the  desire  to  do  some- 
thing for  themselves.  The  awarding  of  Scholar- 
ships  by   open    Examination    before    admission, 


412  Prize  Eiiiohunents 

presents  many  difficulties ;   it  will  be  considered 
further  on. 

The  application  of  endowments  to  cheapen  a 
certain  sort  of  Professional  education,  that  of  the 
clergy  for  instance,  is  of  a  different  kind  ;  it  is 
not  eleemosynary  because  a  return  is  got  for  it, 
namely,  a  larger  supply  of  candidates  for  ordi- 
nation, and  possibly  a  consequent  reduction  in  the 
stipends  of  curates.  Endowments  so  applied  are 
in  fact  given  to  the  Church  Establishment,  and 
were  often  intended  for  this  purpose.  Preparation 
for  Holy  Orders  being  rendered  less  expensive,  the 
number  of  qualified  candidates  will  increase,  but 
what  the  candidate  saves  on  his  education  he  may 
lose  in  the  reduction  of  stipend  consequent  on 
the  greater  supply  of  curates  ;  if  so,  the  gain 
will  fall  to  the  incumbent.  But  the  practical 
effect  would  probably  be  that  the  number  of 
curates  would  be  so  far  increased  by  the  facility 
of  finding  suitable  persons,  that  the  stipends  would 
not  fall,  and  the  benefit  of  such  an  application  of 
endowments  would  therefore  be  felt  in  the  increased 
efficiency  of  the  ministrations  of  the  Church. 
Similar  considerations  apply  also  to  the  cheapen- 
ing of  education  for  the  Scholastic  Profession. 

College  Fellowships  perform  various  functions 
which  will    be    treated    of   in    the    next   chapter. 


in  Education.  413 


Here  I  am  only  concerned  with  the  influence  they 
exert  on  the  higher  education.     This  is  very  great, 
and   extends   beyond    those   who  are  themselves 
candidates  for  these  emoluments.     Moreover  it  is 
in  the  selection  of  candidates  for  Fellowships  that 
the  opposition  between  the  two   uses  of  Exami- 
nations, that  of  picking  out  the  ablest  competitor, 
and  that  of  sanctioning  a  course  of  education,  comes 
most  prominently  into  view.    Here  we  touch  upon 
the  mainspring  of  the  whole  system  of  our  Higher 
Education.     Boys  at  school  are  taught  with  a  view 
to  getting  Scholarships  at  College.      Youths  are 
elected   Scholars  at  a  College    because  they   are 
likely  to  be  high  Wranglers  or  to  get  First  Classes, 
or  to  do  well  in  some  Special  Examinations ;  and 
students   aim    at    these   distinctions   in    order   to 
be  in  the  way  for  getting  a  Fellowship.      Further, 
besides    the    competitors    who    have   some    pros- 
pect of  success,  we  have  a  crowd  of  others,  who 
though  they  may  never  have  had  hopes  of  a  Fellow- 
ship, follow  in  the  wake  of  those  who  look  for  one  : 
they  aim    at   a   place    in    the  list    of   University 
Honours,  and   their  course  of  study,  so  far  as  it 
goes,  is  similar  to  that  of  candidates  for  Fellowships. 
Hence,  if  the  course  of  study  which  is  most 
conducive  to  getting  first  a  Scholarship  and  then 
a   Fellowship   is    not    such    as   is    most    desirable 
in  an  educational  point  of  view,  the  ill  effects  of 


414  Prize  Emoluments 

this  will  be  felt  not  only  in  the  University,  but 
also  in  the  schools,  which,  in  preparing  stu- 
dents, are  guided  by  the  College  Examinations 
for  Scholarships  and  by  those  for  University 
Honours. 

That  we  may  understand  how  an  Examination 
framed  solely  with  a  view  to  discriminating  be- 
tween candidates  may  differ  from  one  framed  for 
educational  purposes,  I  will  take  an  illustration  or 
two  from  elementary  subjects,  as  being  the  most 
familiar  ones. 

Examinations  are  conducted  now  chiefly  by 
printed  papers,  and  these  papers  come  into  the 
hands  of  the  students  (if  we  attempted  to  pre- 
vent this,  we  should  only  give  an  unfair  advantage 
to  those  tutors  who  had  contrived  to  secure  pos- 
session of  a  copy) :  the  student's  reading  is 
therefore  much  directed  by  these  papers.  If  his 
teacher  advised  him  to  learn  what  would  evidently 
not  be  set,  he  would  not  take  his  advice,  or  only 
do  so  in  a  half-hearted  way.  Hence,  if  we  mean 
to  influence  education,  our  Examination  paper 
must  represent  the  subject  as  zoe  zvish  it  to  be 
learnt;  but  some  of  the  questions  set  with  this  view 
may  be  ineffective  for  bringing  out  ability,  and  may 
turn  on  points  which  would  not  come  into  use  in  the 
practical  employment  of  the  knowledge.  If  there- 
fore we  arc  in  search  of  a  person  who  is   to  win 


in  Education.  4 1  5 


credit  in  his  future  career,  as  a  man  of  talent, 
or  a  discoverer,  we  must  set  a  paper  of  a  differ- 
ent character  from  that  which  we  should  draw 
up  as  a  guide  to  sound  study. 

For  instance,  we  will  take  Geometry,  and  sup- 
pose that  we  are  examining  youths  for  a  mathe- 
matical Scholarship  before  admission  at  College. 
The  demonstrations  of  the  known  theorems  will  be 
equally  well  clone  by  many  of  the  competitors;  they 
will  therefore  be  useless  for  the  Examiner  who 
wants  to  find  out  the  most  promising  candidate. 
The  writing  of  them  out  is  wearisome,  it  takes  up 
time,  and  withdraws  attention  from  those  questions 
which  are  designed  to  bring  out  ability,  so  that  for 
the  immediate  purpose  of  the  Examiner,  questions 
on  these  theorems  had  better  not  be  set ;  but  if  it 
becomes  the  practice  to  set  no  simple  propositions, 
propositions  will  no  longer  be  learned,  at  least 
not  for  production,  and  yet  even  the  best  candi- 
dates derive  profit  from  being  forced  to  learn  them, 
while  the  inferior  ones  would  cfet  no  Cfood,  worth 
considering,  from  the  subject  if  they  did  not  do  so. 
If  then  those  questions  only  are  set  which  help 
to  bring  out  promising  men; — those  questions,  that 
is,  which  serve  best  for  selection,— then  the  in- 
fluence of  this  Examination  upon  education  may 
be  a  mischievous  one. 

Let  us  take  an  actual   case.     An    Examiner 


41 6  Prize  EinoliLmaits 

who  was  asked  to  set  a  classical  paper  for  the 
University  Local  Examinations,  the  primary  object 
of  which  is  educational,  once  remonstrated  at  being 
directed  to  set  grammatical  questions.  These,  he 
said,  were  often  answered  best  by  dull  boys  ;  they 
took  up  much  of  the  time  allowed  for  the  papers 
and  gave  the  Examiner  useless  trouble.  His 
experience,  he  added,  was  that  a  few  well  chosen 
piecesfor  translation,  without  any  questions,  effected 
the  purpose  better;  he  had  been  in  the  habit  of 
setting  papers  for  Government  Examinations,  in 
which  right  selection  only  was  aimed  at.  Taking 
his  own  view,  he  was  no  doubt  right;  but  as  we 
wish  boys  to  learn  grammar,  it  is  necessary  that 
they  should  find  questions  on  grammar  in  the 
papers  which  are  set  them. 

Moreover  in  an  educational  Examination 
"  marks  "  are  given  according  to  regular  rules,  a 
kind  of  understanding  is  implied,  that  the  pupil 
will  obtain  a  fair  return  for  every  portion  of  his 
work,  and  an  Examiner  in  a  set  subject  aims  at 
making  an  exhaustive  paper  upon  it,  so  that  a 
pupil  may  find  opportunity  for  shewing  what  know- 
ledge he  has  acquired.  As  has  been  said  (p.  348) 
credit  must  then  be  given  even  for  imperfect 
knowledge,  because  It  is  not  supposed  to  have 
reached  its  final  state:  we  are  valuing  the  crop 
wfiile  it  is  still  growing. 


in  Education.  4 1  7 


But  in  Examinations  used  to  test  ability,  the 
Examiner  should  not  be  fettered  by  any  such 
implied  contract,  he  must  be  free  to  be  guided  by 
impression  ;  for  he  wants  to  find  out,  not  what  the 
man  has  learned,  but  what  he  has  become  by  the 
process  of  learning-,  and  he  may  judge  best  by 
symptoms  casually  disclosed  (see  Chap.  ix.).  If 
we  wanted  to  pick  out  a  classical  scholar,  a  piece  of 
Latin  Prose  Composition  grammatically  correct, 
but  wdiolly  wanting  in  spirit  and  in  idiom,  might 
go  absolutely  for  nothing,  but  it  would  be  unjust 
and  inconsistent  with  our  purpose  if  we  gave  it  no 
credit  in  the  annual  Examination  of  a  School  or 
College. 

Examinations  of  Schools  present  a  particular 
case,  for  in  them  a  chief  object  is  to  see 
whether  the  masters  have  taught  what  they 
should  have  done.  The  Examiner  sets  ques- 
tions to  find  out  whether  boys  are  familiar  with 
a  certain  construction  in  syntax,  or  a  certain 
artifice  in  solving  equations,  because  a  teacher 
ought  to  have  given  this  knowledge  to  his  pupils. 
This  difters  from  the  course,  that  would  be 
followed  in  examining  for  a  Scholarship,  where 
the  Examiner  wants  to  see  what  there  is  in 
the  candidate,  and  avoids  questions  which  only 
shew  whether  his  attention  has  been  called  to 
L.  27 


41 8  Prize  Emoluments 


some  particular  point.  Thus  the  Examiner  who 
wants  to  select  the  ablest  3'outh,  for  an  open 
Scholarship  for  instance,  acts  almost  in  opposition 
to  the  teacher ;  the  one  appears  to  be  trying  to 
baffle  the  other.  The  youth  is  trained  to  make  a 
show,  and  the  Examiner  mentally  tries  to  clear 
away  the  effects  of  training.  Of  two  boys,  who 
get  equal  marks,  one  having  been  well  taught,  and 
the  other  ill  taught,  the  Examiner  would  not  hesi- 
tate to  choose  the  last.  One  may  be  as  good  as  he 
ever  will  be ;  the  other  is  pretty  sure  to  improve. 

This  may  seem  discouraging  to  teachers,  for 
the  better  the  teaching  the  greater  is  the  deduc- 
tion mentally  made  by  the  Examiner,  who  has  to 
judge  not  about  the  actual  knowledge  possessed, 
but  the  promise  of  performance  three  years  later. 
This  hardship  belongs  to  the  "open  Scholar- 
ship" system,  and  is  inseparable  from  it.  Exhi- 
bitions given  away  at  School  operate  more 
satisfactorily,  because  they  are  awarded  to  those 
who  do  best  in  the  aggregate  work  of  the  school. 
A  diligent  boy  may  hereby  surpass  a  cleverer 
one,  but  the  School  does  not  want  to  find  where 
the  greatest  natural  ability  lies,  but  to  reward 
steadiness  and  intelliijence:  in  this  case  Q:ood  and 
careful  teaching  meets  with  the  recognition  it 
deserves. 


in  Education.  419 


The  points  of  contrast  here  brought  out  be- 
tween examinations  used  in  selection  and  those 
used  for  education,  may  be  noted  also  in  the  higher 
examinations,  but  they  are  much  less  marked  ;  be- 
cause, in  an  examination  of  great  extent,  sub- 
jects are  treated  in  such  a  complete  manner  that 
acquaintance  with  a  few  special  points  goes  for 
very  little,  and  Examiners  may  take  it  for  granted 
that  all  candidates  have  been  properly  taught. 
Moreover,  as  education  proceeds  the  more  nearly 
it  approaches  to  self-education,  and  the  more 
therefore  we  see  of  the  man  himself  in  the 
quality  of  his  work. 

In  a  comprehensive  examination,  originality 
will  come  out  somewhere,  and  general  strength 
is  sure  to  make  its  mark ;  so  that  an  exami- 
nation   at   the  end  of  a  lone   educational    course 


c> 


will  be  a  good  guarantee  that  one  who  gains 
distinction  in  it  is  an  able,  as  well  as  a 
highly-instructed  man,  though  it  may  not  serve 
to  pick  out  the  very  ablest  from  among  half 
a  dozen  talented  competitors.  I  have  shewn 
however,  in  the  fourth  Chapter,  that  it  is  hardly 
possible  to  effect  this  at  all  in  a  way  that  shall 
be  quite  satisfactory.  Examiners  vary  much  as 
to  what  they  mean  by  ability,  and  as  to  how  they 
judge  of   the  indications   of    it ;    and    if  the  ob- 

27—2 


420  Prize  Einoluviciits 

ject  is  to  select  those  \\\\o  are  most  likely  to 
make  a  figure  in  life,  as  it  sometimes  is  in  the 
case  of  Fellowships,  physical  causes  and  moral 
qualities  will  operate  with  such  force  as  often  to 
falsify  our  prognostications.  But  if  we  are  guided 
by  Examinations  connected  w^ith  a  sound  educa- 
tional course  of  considerable  length,  the  mere  fact 
that  a  young  man  has  steadily  followed  it  through- 
out, and  has  not  llinched  from  the  drudgery  it 
involves,  affords  us  a  moral  index  which  com- 
pensates in  a  degree  for  the  examination  being 
less  suited  than  a  special  one  might  be  for 
*•  brlno^ino-  out  the  cleverest  man." 

I  dwell  upon  this  point  because,  as  I  have 
said,  the  possibility  of  finding  a  satisfactory  solu- 
tion to  the  difficulties  connected  with  our  subject 
depends  upon  whether  educational  examinations 
can  be  used  for  the  selection  of  candidates  for 
appointments,  and  the  like.  If  they  can  give 
results  accurate  enough  to  serve  as  a  guide 
in  the  dispensing  of  patronage,  then,  what  in  the 
first  Chapter  I  have  called  the  antagonism  of  the 
two  purposes  of  examinations  will  disappear,  and 
the  tutor  will  no  longer  be  distracted  by  seeing 
that  one  course  is  best  for  the  good  of  the 
pupil,  and  a  different  one  is  most  conducive  to 
his  success    in    examination.     When  this   comes 


ill  Education.  42  i 


about,  the  patronage  disposed  of  by  competition 
will,  in  fact,  become  so  much  capital,  applicable 
to  providing  a  healthy  stimulus  for  education. 

At  present  it  often  leads  to  a  special  kind  of 
preparation,  very  effective  for  its  end,  and  to 
young  and  plastic  minds  not  quite  so  injurious  as 
is  commonly  supposed,  but  still  far  from  what 
we  should  desire,  and  which  is  very  expensive. 
Many  boys  leave  school  directly  they  catch  sight 
of  the  army  examination :  they  take  their  fill  of 
sports  and  enjoyments  at  school  as  a  kind  of 
carnival  before  the  season  of  training  for  competi- 
tion. This  disposable  patronage  is  like  a  head  of 
water-power  :  every  drop  is  wanted,  in  these  days 
of  easy  going,  to  drive  the  School  Mill,  but  a 
great  part  is  now  diverted  to  little  sets  of  works 
elsewhere,  which  it  drives  briskly  enough.  Here 
we  have  needless  waste  and  conflict. 

The  freedom  and  diversity  of  education  in 
England  (see  pp.  67,  203)  afford  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  employing  the  school  examinations,  which 
are  educational,  for  disposing  of  patronage.  Some 
classes  or  districts  or  interests  may  gain  or  lose 
an  advantage  by  such  a  plan ;  and  it  will  be 
said  that  they  do  so,  whether  it  be  the  fact  or  not. 
Moreover,  this  freedom  of  the  higher  education 
has  some  deep-lying  advantages  which  make  uj)  in 
part  for  the  want  of  regular  system  and  the  incon- 


42  2  Prize  EmohLments 


veniences  which  come  of  it,  and  this  absence  of 
uniformity  is  quite  English  and  dear  to  many 
Englishmen. 

I  have  hopes,  however,  that  attention  will  be 
called  to  the  subject  of  the  consolidation  of 
examinations,  because  I  foresee  that  the  money 
question  will  shortly  become  serious,  and  on  this 
point  the  public  is  not  deaf.  The  cost  of  exami- 
nations is  now  becoming  very  great,  both  to  the 
Government,  who  pay  for  the  competitions,  and 
to  the  schools,  or  in  fact  the  parents,  who  pay 
for  educational  examinations.  By  combining  the 
two  examinations,  each  party  would  save  half 
the  cost,  one  set  of  machinery  would  do  instead 
of  two,  and  boys  would  not  be  led  to  sup- 
pose that  they  are  to  play  at  school  and  go  to 
a  tutor's  to  learn.  Not  only  is  the  amount 
of  examining  which  now  goes  on  very  expensive 
in  money,  but  it  consumes  the  time  and  energy 
of  men  whom  the  country  wants  for  better  things. 
The  periods  during  which  our  learned  men 
and  teachers  are  set  free  from  their  stated  occu- 
pations, and  of  which  they  want  every  moment 
either  to  recruit  their  brains  or  to  keep  them- 
selves abreast  of  the  progress  of  their  department 
of  thought,  are  often  mis-spent  in  conducting 
examinations  and  looking  over  papers. 

The  solution  of  our  difficulties  must  be  sought 


in  Education. 


in  some  system  of  examination  of  schools.  That 
now  carried  on  by  the  Joint  University  Board  may 
serve  as  a  specimen.  A  good  Examination  at  the 
Universities  in  chscipHnary  subjects,  affording 
room  for  distinction  after  a  few  terms  of  study, 
but  giving  no  tiilc^,  Hke  Moderations  at  Oxford, 
might  work  well  in  conjunction  with  this  plan. 
Those  candidates  only  should  be  allowed  to 
compete  for  the  better  class  of  appointments  who 
had  reached  a  good  position  in  some  such  exa- 
mination ;  and  further  discrimination  might  be 
effected  by  a  brief  examination  in  a  restricted 
number  of  subjects  of  the  ''Arts"  class.  The 
marks  would  have  to  be  allotted  on  some  system 
which  would  give  weight  to  excellence  in  a  single 
branch  (see  Chap.  ix.).  In  the  case  of  University 
rewards,  the  emoluments  are  in  the  hands  of  the 
academical  bodies  themselves,  and  they  can  set 
the  example  of  a  system  of  selection  which,  so  far 
as  it  depends  on  examinations,  shall  be  based  on 
those  which  are  framed  as  supports  to  the  highest 
education. 

^  Titles  mislead,  and  come  to  be  coveted  for  themselves,  not  as  tokens 
of  education  :  they  obtain  a  market  value,  and  then  a  demand  is  made  for 
a  description  cheaper  in  point  of  the  time  and  attainments  required. 
In  Germany,  three  years  of  study  is  required,  but  no  first  Degree  is  given. 
Our  B.A.  is  historical,  and  it  serves  instead  of  such  State  requirements 
to  attract  students.  Fresh  Titles  would  bring  in  money,  but  would 
intensify  ths  notion  that  a  person  must  be  paid  for  anything  he  learns. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

EXAMINATIONS     FOR     COLLEGE    FELLOWSHIPS     AND 
SCHOLARSHIPS. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  from  the  heading  of 
this  Chapter,  that  I  intend  it  as  a  pamphlet  on 
the  reorganisation  of  Colleges.  I  may  make 
{general  suo^o-estions,  and  I  shall  refer  to  a  scheme 
traced  in  outline  in  the  Third  Report  of  the 
Royal  Commission  on  Scientific  Instruction,  but 
I  cannot  enter  on  the  points  of  celibacy,  tenure, 
pay,  and  retiring  pensions;  and  yet  it  is  on  the  way 
in  which  these  matters  are  dealt  with  that  the 
success  of  legislation  on  the  subject  must  depend. 
Fellowships  fulfil  at  present  very  complex 
functions. 

I.  They  constitute  the  pay  for  years  of  sys- 
tematic study.  All  diligent  students  cannot  indeed 
get  Fellowships,  but  the  class  is  remunerated 
\)y  the  possibility  of  some  among  them  attain- 
ing large  rewards. 

II.  Moreover,  Fellowships  fulfil  certain  social 
and  political  purposes  (see  p.  69).  They  serve 
as    "ladders"    or   shafts,   whereby  access   to   the 


Fellowships  and  ScJiolarsJiips.  425 

surface  is  opened  to  the  lower-lying'  strata  of 
society ;  but  this  function  is  disconnected  witli 
academical  ends  ;  it  has  nothing-  to  do  with  the 
advancement  of  learning,  it  is  accidentally  ful- 
filled by  Fellowships,  now  that  they  have  come  to 
be  annuities  dissociated  from  duties,  but  it  might, 
as  far  as  logical  considerations  go,  be  discharged 
by  pensions  from  the  Civil  List,  for  it  touches 
the  State  rather  than  the  University.  The  present 
condition  of  things  has,  however,  a  great  advan- 
tage, because  the  Universities  and  Colleges  are, 
of  all  bodies  in  England,  the  most  free  from  poli- 
tical feeling  and  the  chance  of  jobbery. 

III.  Fellowships  also  assist  in  making  up 
the  income  of  the  tutorial  staff,  though  this  effect 
is  much  impaired  by  the  allowing  of  non-residence, 
because  a  resident  Fellow  will  not  reckon  his 
dividend  as  pay  for  work  done  if  he  can  receive 
the  same  sum  without  doing  work  at  all. 

IV.  Further,  these  Fellows,  or  the  Seniors  of 
them,  but  very  commonly  the  whole  bod}^  have 
the  government  of  the  College  in  their  hands. 

It  will  be  seen  that  these  functions  may  be  in- 
congruous. A  youth  may  have  attained  a  certain 
proficiency,  and  have  a  right  to  the  Avagcs  of  his 
work,  but  he  may  be  unsuited  in  point  of  temper 
or  from  want  of  power   of  keeping  order  or  of 


4^6  Examinations  for  College 

commanding  attention  for  taking  part  in  College 
work,  and  he  may  be  as  far  as  possible  from  being 
the  sort  of  person  who  would  be  selected  to  be 
put  on  the  Governing  Body  of  a  place  of  the 
higher  education. 

It  seems  to  me  that  our  difficulties,  which 
arise  from  a  Fellowship  having  two  or  more 
functions  to  fulfil,  will  be  best  met  by  having  two 
or  three  classes  of  Fellowships, — call  the  lowest 
of  them  Studentships  or  what  you  will, — and  by 
separating  these  functions,  assigning  some  to  one 
class  of  Fellowships  and  some  to  another.  The 
view  taken  by  the  Royal  Commission  on  Scien- 
tific Instruction  of  1873  agrees  in  most  respects 
with  mine.  I  shall  give  in  an  Appendix  to  this 
book  that  part  of  their  Report  which  treats  of 
Fellowships,  with  a  few  remarks.  This  will  fur- 
nish the  reader  with  a  scheme  of  reconstruction, 
based  on  the  principles  which  I  proceed  to  ex- 
plain. I  must  say  a  few  words  to  shew  how 
Fellowships  came  to  be  what  they  are. 

The  middle  ages  developed  many  forms  of 
corporate  life ;  one  of  these  was  the  Academical 
College,  a  brotherhood  banded  together  for  quiet 
study.  A  few  scholars  might  receive  instruction, 
but  it  was  not  founded  as  a  school  :  authority 
would   have    been    more    concentrated    if  it    had 


Fellowships  and  Scholarships.  427 

been  so.  The  idea  that  lay  at  the  root  of  it 
was  that  of  a  Family,  and  a  new  Fellow  was 
adopted  into  it,  being  chosen  apparently  from 
the  knowledge  that  the  others  had  of  him. 
University  distinction  could  not  have  been  con- 
sidered, as  candidates  were  elected  before  they 
were  of  standing  for  the  complete  Degree, 
and  it  was  for  this  that  the  most  important 
Disputations  took  place.  Even  in  the  few  cases 
in  which  the  Fellows  could  be  laymen,  celi- 
bacy was  made  essential,  not,  as  it  seems  to 
me,  from  monastic  notions,  but  because  it  was 
essential  to  the  contemplated  kind  of  common 
life.  Fellows  received  no  money  from  the 
College,  but  only  shelter  and  humble  fare ;  and 
they  were  bound  to  reside  in  College  during 
nearly  the  whole  year,  unless  they  had  leave  of 
absence ;  thus  a  Fellowship  was  valueless  to  a 
married  man.  When  we  approach  the  Reforma- 
tion, we  find,  from  the  statutes  of  the  foundations 
of  that  period,  that  the  Colleges  had  come  to  be 
regarded  as  places  of  education;  for  stipends  are 
attached  to  educational  offices,  and  provision  is 
made  for  College  discipline.  It  was  not  till 
the  end  of  the  1 7th  century  that  the  surplus  of 
funds  beyond  the  household  expenses  was  divided 
among  the  Fellows  :    this  changed  the  nature  of 


4^8  Examinations  for  College 

the  institution  altogether.  After  this,  a  Fellow- 
ship had  attractions  for  a  non-resident.  The  idea 
of  Family  was  weakened,  and  the  "ladder"  theory 
then  became  applicable,  for  a  non-resident  used 
his  Fellowship  to  push  his  way  in  a  profession. 
Further,  when  Examinations  for  University 
Honours  were  introduced,  and  these,  or  Special 
Examinations  in  the  subjects  of  University  study 
were  used  as  the  modes  of  selecting  persons  for 
Fellowships,  then,  these  emoluments  began  to  act 
as  a  recompense  for  diligence  and  intellectual 
distinction.  The  new  Statutes  o-iven  to  the 
Colleges  in  1857 — 1860,  upheld  in  the  main  the 
existing  practices,  and  under  these  Statutes  Fel- 
lowships are  now  held  under  various  kinds  of 
tenure — sometimes  for  life,  sometimes  for  a  term 
of  years,  sometimes  with,  sometimes  without  re- 
striction as  to  celibacy  and  the  taking  of  Holy 
Orders ;  but,  in  general,  a  Fellow  of  a  College 
is  simply  an  annuitant,  receiving  from  ^225  to 
^350  per  annum.  In  many  cases  he  is  one  of 
the  Governing  Body  of  the  College,  and  is  bound 
to  attend  College  meetings,  but  has  no  other 
duties  to  perform  qtid  Fellow,  though  the  Tutors 
and  College  officers  are  almost  always  taken  from 
among  the  Fellows. 

These    Fellowships    are    bestowed,   speaking 


Fellowships  and  ScJiolar ships.  429 

roughly,  either  by  special  Examination  open  to 
the  University,  or  with  reference  to  the  place 
obtained  in  the  lists  of  University  Honours. 
When  Special  Examinations  were  relied  upon 
altogether,  it  would  sometimes  occur  to  candidates 
to  avoid  the  Honour  Schools  altogether,  and  to 
read  directly  for  the  kind  of  Examination  by 
which  the  Fellowship  was  bestowed.  This  tended 
to  lessen  both  the  glory  of  the  College  to  which 
an  aspirant  belonged,  and  also  the  prestige  of 
University  Honours.  Steps  were  taken  to  dis- 
courage it,  and  at  Oxford,  where  Special  Examina- 
tions had  been,  and  are  still,  generally  employed, 
a  provision  was  made  by  many  of  the  College 
Statutes  of  twenty  years  ago,  that  no  one  should  be 
elected  to  a  Fellowship  unless  he  had  obtained 
a  place  in  the  first  class  of  one  of  the  Honour 
Schools. 

At  Cambridge,  the  Colleges,  with  the  exception 
of  Trinity  College,  were  formerly  guided  in  award- 
ing Fellowships  by  the  result  of  the  Mathemati- 
cal Tripos,  and  by  the  other  kinds  of  University 
distinction,  prizes  and  the  like,  obtained  by  the 
candidates.  Classics  were  scantily  represented, 
compared  with  Mathematics,  until  about  1S25, 
when  the  Classical  Tripos  was  instituted.  Other 
Triposes  have,  since,  been  taken  into  account. 


43 o  Examinations  for  College 

The  Examination  at  Trinity  College,  which 
was  confined  to  the  Bachelor  Scholars  of  the  Col- 
lege, was  in  some  degree  educational ;  it  afforded 
scope  for  distinction  in  Classics,  and,  in  fact,  kept 
that  study  alive  in  the  University  in  old  times. 

Here  we  must  mark  how  these  different 
modes  of  testing  qualifications  for  Fellowships 
act  with  reference  to  the  leading  purposes  which 
they  have  in  view. 

The  system  of  Open  Special  Examinations 
appears  to  be  most  directly  suited  to  securing  the 
ablest  men  for  a  particnlar  College,  while  by 
adopting  the  University  Examinations  as  a  guide, 
the  Fellowships  supply  inducements  to  study  for 
University  Honours.  In  Cambridge  phrase,  they 
"  keep  up  the  Triposes." 

The  respective  advantages  of  the  two  plans, 
viewed  in  the  interests  of  the  Colleges  and  of  the 
Fellows  themselves,  were  closely  canvassed  when 
the  change  of  College  Statutes  took  place  (see 
p.  20),  and  is  discussed  in  the  Report  of  the 
Royal  Commission  on  Scientific  Instruction  given 
in  the  Appendix.  The  first  plan  may  act  best  for 
selection,  in  certain  cases.  The  College  that 
has  the  first  choice  out  of  a  batch  of  candi- 
dates does  better,  and  that  which  has  the  last 
choice  comes  off  worse,   than  each   would   under 


Fellowships  and  ScJiolai'ships.  43  i 

the  other  phm.  The  system  may  lead  to  a 
little  manccuvrinor  in  order  to  sfet  the  first  choice. 
So  far  as  rewarding  merit  goes,  one  system 
answers  as  well  as  the  other.  Under  both  systems 
the  same  persons  would  get  Fellowships  in 
nineteen  cases  out  of  twenty,  and  in  the  twentieth 
case  it  would  probably  be  an  open  question 
whether  the  person  elected  under  one  system 
or  the  other  was  most  deserving:  hence  it  is 
only  a  question  of  the  distrihition  of  able  men 
among  the  Colleges.  We  should  hear  complaints 
soon  enough  if  deserving  persons  went  unre- 
warded, and  no  such  complaints  arise.  A  College 
however  may  prefer  judging  of  candidates  for 
itself  to  accepting  the  award  of  the  University, 
for  persons  commonly  have  confidence  in  their 
own  powers  of  discrimination,  and  think  that,  as 
being  the  best  judges,  they  will  get  the  best 
baroains. 

Economical  considerations  are  all  on  the  side 
of  adopting  the  Degree  Examinations  as  a  crite- 
rion. For  if  a  candidate  for  a  Fellowship  has  to 
wait  for  two  or  three  years,  and  during  this  time 
has  to  keep  his  knowledge  in  a  state  fit  for  pro- 
duction, this  amounts  to  his  risking  much  more 
on  the  venture,  and  he  will  require  a  larger  prize 
in  proportion  to  what  he  is  called  upon  to  stake. 


432  Examinations  f 07''  College 

This,  according  to  my  view,  as  will  be  seen  pre- 
sently, is  important,  for  since  with  the  multiplica- 
tion of  branches  of  study  we  require  more  numero2LS 
rewards,  the  demand  on  our  resources  will  be 
heavy.  It  is  therefore  important  to  keep  down 
the  amounts  to  the  lowest  point  at  which  they  will 
effect  what  we  want,  and  this  point  is  lower  under 
the  latter  scheme  than  under  the  former,  I  think 
that  the  prospect  of  from  ^120  to  ^200  for  from  5 
to  7  years  would  furnish  sufficient  stimulus,  and  that 
in  fact  the  students  would  work  as  hard  for  these 
emoluments  as  they  do  now  for  nearly  twice  that 
amount;  but  then  they  must  be  set  free  from 
Examinations  as  soon  as  they  have  got  their 
Degrees. 

Society  Is  chiefly  Interested  In  the  influences 
exerted  on  education  by  these  different  ways  of  be- 
stowing Fellowships.  If  one  way  does  more  good 
than  another,  it  will  tend  to  a  larger  prodtiction 
of  the  class  of  men  for  the  sake  of  whom  rciuard 
Fellowships  exist.  The  system  of  Special  Ex- 
aminations for  each  College  held  as  occasions 
arise.  Is  ill  adapted  to  fostering  a  spirit  of  "  re- 
search." The  candidate  who  has  taken  his  Degree 
should  read  In  a  spirit  different  from  that  of 
one  looking  to  an  Examination;  he  should  no 
more  burden  himself  with  matter  merely  for  pro- 


Felloivships  and  Scholarships. 


■JO 


duction,  than  a  person  would  who  was  reading  with 
a  view  to  Hterary  work.  But  the  possibiHty  of  a 
call  to  display  his  cleverness  at  any  moment 
keeps  him  always  on  the  strain ;  the  bow  is 
always  to  be  ready  for  discharge  ;  and  so  every 
passage  that  he  reads  is  considered  with  the  view 
of  being  turned  to  account,  in  answering  a 
question  or  in  an  essay.  So  much  is  this  the  case, 
that  I  have  been  told  by  candidates,  that  when 
after  a  long  course  they  had  ceased  reading  for 
Fellowships,  and  this  artificial  stimulus  had  been 
removed,  all  reading  seemed  to  them  for  a  time 
to  have  lost  its  interest. 

It  is  well,  indeed,  that  a  man  should  go  on 
studying  after  his  degree,  but  then  he  should 
study  as  a  man  studies  ;  and  study  which  is  sub- 
ordinated to  an  impending  Examination  is  pupil 
study:  it  is  directed  to  learning,  not  to  judging. 
The  pupil  has  to  keep  up  skill  of  certain  sorts,  to 
accumulate  knowledge,  and  to  hold  it  by  him 
in  a  fit  state  for  production  on  demand.  The 
constant  anxiety  lest  some  of  this  information 
should  slip  away  engenders  a  feverish  habit  of 
mind.  These  evils  are  pointed  out  by  Mr  Sayce, 
in  the  article  so  often  quoted,  w^ith  reference  to 
Oxford.  The  Cambridge  system  has  produced 
evils  of  another  kind.  Educational  machinery  was 
L.  28 


434  Examinations  for  College 


used  to  effect  a  nice  sifting  and  sorting ;  it  was 
modified  to  effect  this  object  the  better,  and  thereby 
served  its  proper  function  the  worse.  The  range 
of  the  University  Honour  Examinations  has  been 
widened  to  inchide  the  subjects  which  belong  to 
the  professed  sava7it,  because  the  Colleges  wanted 
to  find  out  who  were  great  Classics  or  great  Mathe- 
maticians. Such  persons  would  give  dclat  to 
the  College  as  Tutors  and  would  add  to  the 
intellectual  character  of  the  Society.  The  result 
is,  that  the  special  course  has  become  too  exten- 
sive for  the  period  of  residence,  that  general 
education  is  sacrificed  to  make  time  for  it,  that 
study  is  hurried  and  strained,  and  what  the 
Germans  call  "tumultuous,"  and  that  excessive 
attention  is  drawn  to  the  points  which  mark 
ascertainable  differences  between  men  :  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  qualities  which  produce  these 
differences,  such  as  ingenuity  and  powers  of 
imitation,  are  cultivated  to  an  undue  extent, 

I  will  now  lay  down  the  general  outline  of 
a  plan  which  would,  I  think,  answer  the  ends  in 
view. 

We  want  to  fulfil  two  purposes  above  all;  first, 
to  induce  able  young  men  to  pursue  some  kinds  of 
study  farther  and  more  systematically  than  they  will 
do  without  a  prospect  of  recompense.   The  Govern- 


Fellowships  and  Scholarships.  435 


ment  offers  such  prospects  in  the  way  of  Indian  and 
other  appointments  which  are  open  to  competition, 
and  the  Universities  must  offer  Hke  advantagfes  or 
lose  the  able  men.  Secondly,  we  want  to  select  for 
the  Colleo-es  the  fittest  and  ablest  men  for  their 
staff  and  Governing  Body.  We  have  hitherto 
been  trying  to  effect  these  two  purposes  with  one 
set  of  machinery,  and  we  have  met  with  imperfect 
success.  It  seems  an  obvious  expedient  to  have 
different  sets  of  machinery  for  the  different  objects. 

We  must  recompense  young  men  for  applying 
to  study  which  is  not  remunerative,  instead  of 
taking  to  a  business  which  will  yield  them  an 
income,  but  we  need  not  give  them  more  than  will 
bring  us  the  men  we  want.  At  present  our  re- 
wards, though  not  too  numerous,  are  unnecessarily 
large;  we  could  obtain  what  we  want  for  a  smaller 
outlay. 

To  supply  rewards  "pure  and  simple''  the 
Colleges  might  turn  some  Fellowships  into  Stu- 
dentships of  two  grades  of  value,  tenable  for  a 
short  period  after  degree,  free  from  all  restrictions 
and  all  duties,  but  not  conferring  any  authority 
whatever.  They  probably  would  be  called  Junior 
Fellowships,  but  I  call  them  here  Studentships,  to 
avoid  confusion  of  terms.  To  get  a  clear  concep- 
tion we  may  suppose  that  the  lower  class  would 

28—2 


43^  Exafninatio7is  for  College 

be  worth  ^120  and  the  higher  ^180  per  annum, 
tenable  for  five  years;  or  a  smaller  sum  might  be 
given,  and  the  period  of  tenure  be  lengthened. 

The  advantao-e  of  havins;-  two  classes  of  Stu- 
dentships  would  be  of  the  same  kind  as  that  of 
having  two  or  more  classes  of  Scholarships — we 
might  adapt  the  recompense  to  the  work  done. 

I  have  said  that  I  think  that  these  Studentships 
should  be  bestowed  according  to  the  result  of  the 
Educational  Examinations  of  the  University.  But 
we  have  also  to  consider  the  Further  Examina- 
tions, as  for  shortness'  sake  I  will  call  them  ;  these 
would  embrace  the  highest  branches  of  knowledge 
treated  in  the  way  required  by  the  professional 
savant.  They  would  therefore  carry  weight  as 
afibrding  recommendation  for  Professorships  and 
College  Lectureships,  to  some  of  which  Fellow- 
ships might  be  attached.  But  these  Further 
Examinations  may  possibly  require  more  direct 
support  than  this.  The  Studentships  might  some- 
times be  given  for  the  Further  Examination  taken 
in  addition  to  the  Educational  one  ;  or  a  person 
who  had  obtained  a  Studentship  of  smaller  value 
might  be  promoted  to  one  of  greater  value  on 
obtaining  distinction  in  the  Further  Examination. 
There  would  probably  be  some  branches  of  learn- 
inof  in   which   the   division    into   educational  and 


Fellowships  and  Scholarships.  437 

scientific  departments  with  Examinations  for  each 
could  not  at  present  be  made,  and  emoluments 
would  be  given  for  these  by  a  single  Examination 
as  now. 

Besides  these  Studentships  a  certain  number 
of  Fellowships  would  be  retained.  The  Govern- 
ing Body  would  consist  of  the  Head  and  the 
Fellows,  The  chief  College  offices  should  be  an- 
nexed to  Fellowships,  which  would  become  endow- 
ments of  these  offices  and  be  vacated  with  them, 
like  Professorships.  In  addition  to  these  Fellow- 
ships attached  to  College  offices  there  might 
be  as  many  more  as  the  funds  will  supply  ;  these 
should  be  held  for  a  term  of  years,  or,  possibly 
for  life,  by  persons  who  had  attained  distinction 
in  science  or  learning,  or  who  had  done  specially 
good  work  in  education  or  literature.  These 
Fellows  would  strengthen  the  Governing  Body. 

The  Studentships,  being  intended  solely  as 
a  support  to  the  Honour  Schools,  should  be 
awarded  mainly  with  regard  to  distinctions  ob- 
tained in  them,  but  any  College  or  University 
Prizes,  and  indeed  all  that  a  student  had 
done  in  his  Academical  career,  might  be  taken 
into  account,  and  allowance  be  made  in  cases  of 
illness.  The  bugbear  of  jobbery,  which  was  at 
one   time    always  before  the  eyes  of    University 


43^  Examinatio7is  for  College 


Reformers,  need  not  make  us  afraid  of  leaving" 
room  for  discretion:  public  opinion  is  so  strong 
that  there  is  no  fear  of  favour.  There  is  more 
fear  that  electors  will  be  afraid  of  actinir  on  their 
private  convictions  when  they  think  that  a  candi- 
date deserves  a  Studentship,  but  where  circum- 
stances have  prevented  his  getting  the  full  amount 
of  distinction  to  shew.  An  electoral  body  should 
have  a  wide  discretion,  and  as  the  student  elected 
would  have  no  voice  in  the  government,  and  there- 
fore no  party  or  political  feeling  need  intrude,  the 
Fellows  might  be  as  thoroughly  trusted  to  dispose 
of  Studentships,  as  they  now  are  to  give  away 
Scholarships. 

The  Fellows  pi^oper  should  not  be  chosen  with 
sole  reference  to  Examinations  ;  but  with  a  view, 
in  the  case  of  the  College  officers,  to  their  fitness 
for  their  post ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  others,  to 
the  literary,  or  scientific,  or  educational  work  which 
they  have  done  :  these  last  should  be  chosen  on  the 
same  grounds  that  Professors  would  be  appointed. 

The  Fellowships  would  serve  as  inducements 
for  the  holders  of  Studentships  to  apply  them- 
selves to  earnest  study.  At  present  Fellows  are 
elected  because  they  have  laid  in  an  extensive 
apparatus  with  which  they  may  do  something  if 
they   like,   but  they  have  become   habituated  to 


Fellowships  and  Scholarskips.  439 


look  to  advancement  as  their  motive,  and  after 
being  elected  such  motives  are  suddenly  with- 
drawn. To  have  an  assured  maintenance  and 
to  live  among  a  critical  society  may  prove  adverse 
to  laborious  investigation  and  to  publication.  If 
an  Examination  is  needed  for  choosing  Fellows,  it 
should  turn  greatly  on  Dissertations  (see  p.  285); 
but  most  weight  should  be  given  to  what  the  can- 
didate has  done  after  reaching  manhood,  in  the 
way  of  writing,  lecturing,  or  scientific  work:  the 
prospect  of  meeting  with  persons  likely  to  work 
in  earnest  will  be  much  improved  by  selecting 
those  who  have  already  embarked  in  independent 
study.  The  surest  way  of  getting  what  we  want, 
be  it  "research,"  or  learned  books,  or  what  not, 
is  to  offer  high  rewards  for  good  performances 
when  they  appear. 

In  electing  to  a  Fellowship  the  distinction 
gained  by  the  individual  at  his  Degree  and  more 
particularly  in  the  Inirther  Examination,  sup- 
posing that  there  should  be  one  in  his  line  of 
study,  might  be  taken  into  some  account,  as 
vouchers  for  the  possession  of  knowledge,  as 
they  would  be  in  electing  a  Professor.  There 
should  be  no  limits  as  to  the  aije  or  staudifio- 
of  candidates  for  Fellowships,  though  there  might 
be  such  in  the  case  of  Studentships. 


440  Examinations  for  College 


Again,  in  distributing  rewards,  account  must  be 
taken  of  the  need  there  is  for  them.  Unnecessary 
rewards,  Hke  bounties  on  a  manufacture,  do  harm. 
If  study  were  in  itself  remunerative,  we  should 
want  no  recompense  for  it,  and  the  funds  ex- 
pended in  this  way  would  become  applicable  to 
other  purposes.  Hence  the  more  nearly  a  kind 
of  study  approaches  to  a  Professional  training,  the 
less  it  will  be  necessary  to  bestow  in  order  to 
keep  it  going;  for  professional  study  provides  its 
own  remuneration  ;  the  skill  acquired  is  in  itself 
a  valuable  possession.  A  study,  however,  which, 
like  Law,  is  not  carried  on  in  a  strictly  profes- 
sional way  at  the  University,  would  not  be  pursued 
there,  in  consequence  of  this  margin  of  difference, 
unless  it  carried  some  rewards,  or  was  supported 
by  being  accepted  as  part  of  a  professional 
course  in  the  Examination.  But  smaller  re- 
wards, the  ^120  Studentships,  for  instance,  would 
suffice  for  the  branches  of  study  which  are  con- 
nected with  Professions,  The  broader  the  margin 
above  spoken  of  the  more  will  have  to  be  given. 

It  would,  however,  be  no  gain  to  education 
that  the  whole  force  of  College  advantages  should 
be  expended  in  support  of  the  University  course, 
unless  this  University  course  were  a  good  and 
complete    one.      I    have   said    that  I   propose    to 


Fellowships  and  Scholarships.  441 

devote  the  Studentships  entirely  to  the  support 
of  the  University  Honours,  in  order  to  induce  the 
promising  young  men  to  provide  themselves  with 
a  high  and  complete  education.  This  makes  it 
imperative  on  the  University  to  lay  down  courses 
of  education  proper  for  persons  of  various  turns  of 
mind,  not  unduly  fostering  particular  kinds  of 
talent,  by  framing  Examinations  with  a  view  to 
finding  out  the  persons  of  most  brain  power,  but 
recognizing  the  need  of  Supplementary  Studies 
(see  pp.  307,  320),  in  combination  with  those  which 
bring  only  particular  sets  of  faculties  into  play. 
Hitherto  in  recastino-  the  Honour  Examinations 
at  Cambridge,  the  Fellowships  have  sometimes 
proved  an  impediment.  The  question  has  arisen, 
How,  if  we  reduce  the  efficacy  of  our  Examinations 
as  means  of  discrimination,  are  we  to  give  away 
the  Fellowships  ?  How  shall  we  secure  that  they 
will  fall  to  men  of  real  power  ?  Thus  the  Ex- 
amination has  been  made  subservient  to  the  dis- 
posing of  emoluments,  the  raison  d'etre  of  which 
emoluments  is,  or  should  be,  to  lend  support  to 
the  education  that  is  represented  by  these  Exami- 
nations. 

Inasmuch  as  excellence  in  one  branch  has 
been  found  to  be  the  best  criterion  of  power,  each 
branch    of  study    has    been    carried    further   and 


442  Examinations  for  College 


further,  in  order  to  afford  more  scope  for  the  dis- 
play of  special  powers.     The  old  College  courses 
of   study    in    Cambridge    were    often    wide    and 
liberal,  and  the  pupils  looked  to  the  College  Ex- 
amination at  the  end  of  the  year,  which  involved 
well-chosen  subjects  of  different  descriptions;  but 
of  late  persons  have  become  impatient  of  every 
thinof  that  draws  them  from  the  course  in  which 
they  are  to  run  for  their  great  prize.     Moreover 
the  public  rates  the  success  of  a  College,  not  by 
the  ofood  done  to  the  averao^e  student^ — for  of  this 
it  knows  nothing — but  by  the  distinction  won  in 
Honours.   This  urges  teachers  in  a  direction  which 
they  are  often   inclined   to  follow,  for  those  who 
have  just   won    renown   in  one  of  these    special 
arenas,    feel    a  keen    interest  in    these    conflicts, 
they  desire  to  fight  their  battles  over  again  in  the 
persons  of  their  pupils.     This  state  of  things  may 
be  altered  by  disposing  of  the  Fellowships  (as  op- 
posed to  Studentships)  by  means  which  turn  only 
in  a  small  degree  on  the  result  of  Examinations. 
The  College  will  not  feel  that  its  credit  depends 
on  those  who  hold  mere  Studentships:  and  it  will 
not  be  intent  on  securing  men  of  poiver  for  them. 
For  unless  the  Student  become  a  Lecturer  he  will 
have  little   connexion   with    the    College,  or   op- 
portunity of  conferring  credit  upon  it.  Studentships 


FelloivsJiips  ajid  ScholarsJiips.  443 


should  be  the  more  numerous  because  the  Educa- 
tional Examinations  by  whicli  they  ought  to  be 
awarded  may  be  a  less  exact  criterion  of  merit 
than  those  now  in  use.  The  Educational  Exami- 
nations will  be  discriminating  enough,  provided  we 
have  plenty  of  prizes  to  give  away  ;  if  prizes  were 
few  we  could  not  be  sure  of  awarding  them  rightly. 
The  Examination  for  the  Indian  Civil  Service  {see 
p.  322)  answers  its  purpose  because  so  many 
candidates  are  accepted,  that  all  the  able  men 
may  be  taken. 

Having  got  rid  of  the  causes  which  lead  people 
to  overvalue  prodigious  and  precocious  know- 
ledge of  one  sort,  we  may  arrive  at  a  sound  and 
philosophical  University  course  for  the  higher 
men^. 

The  first  requisite,  as  I  have  said,  is  to  bring 
the  range  of  the  Educational  Examinations 
for  Honours  within  such  limits  that  a  youth  of 
ability,  with  a  good  school  education,  may  cover 
it  within  the  duration  of  his  University  course. 
University    Honours    should   depend    mainly   on 

^  The  course  for  the  Ordinary  Degree  at  present  is  fairly  enough  suited 
to  the  wants  and  capacities  of  the  class  of  men  who  engage  in  it,  both  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  At  Oxford  the  general  education  of  the  Candi- 
dates for  Honours  is  well  provided  for  by  Moderations,  but  at  Cambridge 
it  is  at  present  (1877)  represented  by  a  wholly  inadequate  Examination. 
A  scheme  was  brought  forward  some  years  ago,  but  the  best  part  of  it  was 
thrown  out,  and  the  present  transitory  condition  is  most  unsatisfactory. 


444  Exammatio7ts  for  College 

University  work.  If  the  course  be  too  heavy  for 
the  time  allowed,  or  if  it  require  long  previous 
training,  some  youths  will  be  taken  off  their 
general  work  at  school,  and  be  put  into  a  narrow 
groove  at  a  time  when  their  minds  particularly 
require  general  expansion  ;  or  else  they  will  defer 
coming  to  the  University.  If  we  reduced  our 
course  in  point  of  time,  retaining  a  creditable 
standard,  the  only  effect  would  be  to  drive  the 
able  youths  to  a  special  trainer  for  a  year  before 
coming  up,  and  some  might  be  incapacitated  or 
discouraged  from  competing,  owing  to  finding 
themselves  at  a  disadvantage  from  bad  schooling, 
or  from  their  parents  having  been  uncertain  about 
their  destination.  It  is  well  that  persons  should 
have  a  chance  of  repairing  such  injuries  by  their 
own  exertions.  This  is  a  strong  argument  against 
shortening  the  University  course;  it  would  not 
leave  room  for  recovering  lost  ground,  and  so 
would  practically  confine  University  Honours  to 
those  who  had  had  judicious  parents.  The  Vaca- 
tions afford  no  room  for  extra  work,  as  the 
Honour  men  already  use  them  for  study.  At 
Cambridge  there  is  in  fact  a  Vacation  Term 
during  July  and  August. 

Secondly,  the   three  years  from    i8  to  21,  the 
proper  season  for  University  residence,  should,  as 


Felloivships  and  ScJiolarships.  445 

I  have  already  said,  not  be  devoted  entirely  to  a 
single  branch  of  study.  For  all  but  very  strong  and 
precocious  minds  it  is  too  early  to  turn  the  whole 
mental  energy  into  one  channel,  and  there  is  not 
one  student  in  twenty  who  has  been  sufficiently 
educated  "all  round,"  when  he  comes  to  the  Uni- 
versity, to  be  properly  remitted  to  a  special  study. 
I  conceive  that  the  first  year  or  year  and  a  quarter 
should  be  given  to  a  course  comprising  at  least 
two  branches  of  study,  which  should  be  supplemen- 
tary in  some  measure  to  each  other:  but  one  or 
both  of  these  might  bear  on  the  courses  in  which 
the  Student  ultimately  aims  at  Honours. 

By  restricting  the  range  of  these  Honour 
Schools  and  putting  those  abstruser  parts  of  the 
studies  which  concern  the  man  of  learning  only, 
into  a  Further  Examination,  we  should  enable 
some  to  take  double  Honours,  which  have  become 
rare.  Strong  men,  who  can  reach  excellence  in  a 
single  branch,  had  best  concentrate  their  efforts 
on  this  ;  but  some  minds  w^ill  thrive  best  on  a 
more  varied  diet.  The  Further  Examinations 
should  be  held  of  course  subsequently  to  the 
Educational  Examination  which  should  give  the 
Degree ;  and  I  contemplate  that  the  results  of 
these  Further  Examinations,  for  which  the  Can- 
didates   in    each    branch    would    be    few,    should 


44^  Examinatiojis  for  College 


appear  in  a  class  list  containing  three  or 
four  classes  with  the  names  alphabetically  ar- 
rano-ed.  In  the  Educational  Examination  I 
would  place  the  names  as  nearly  in  order  of 
merit  as  the  case  admits;  when  the  subjects 
are  difficult  to  compare,  as  in  Natural  Science, 
we  must  be  content  with  a  rough  classification. 
Electors  to  Studentships  might,  if  they  wanted 
more  guidance,  require  testimonials  from  Ex- 
aminers, or  obtain  access  to  the  marks  (see 
Chap.  IX.). 

The  interval  between  the  two  Examinations 
might  be  left  undefined.  I  do  not  see  why  a  person 
should  be  excluded  by  reason  of  his  standing  from 
engaging  in  the  Further  Examination,  as  the 
distinction  of  one  person  in  it  would  not  involve 
the  depression  of  another;  at  least  the  superior 
limit  of  age  might  be  placed  high. 

I  have  referred  in  p.  69,  to  the  pi'oper  propor- 
tions of  the  funds  to  be  spent  in  rewards  and  in 
other  ways. 

Distinctions  and  recompense  are  not  the  only 
ways  of  supporting  education;  we  may  cheapen 
it  as  well  as  reward  it.  How  much  should  we 
do  in  one  direction,  and  how  much  in  the 
(jther?  Let  us  consider  the  effect  that  would  be 
produced  by  expending  all  our  College  funds  in 


Fellowships  and  Scholarships.  44; 


providing  gratuitous  instruction.  That  is  to  say, 
in  paying  the  Tutors  as  the  Deans  are  now  paid, 
out  of  corporate  revenues ;  or,  as  this  would  make 
but  a  very  trifling  difference  in  the  whole  expense 
of  a  student's  maintenance,  let  us  suppose  that 
we  provide  gratuitous  lodging  also,  but  give  no 
rewards  for  attainments.  In  the  case  of  the  well- 
to-do  classes,  education  would  not  be  affected ; 
the  same  persons  would  come  to  the  University 
who  come  now.  We  might  attract  by  reason  of 
cheapness  some  poorer  men  of  moderate  capacity, 
but  the  abler  ones  would  lose  more  by  not  having 
Scholarships  and  Fellowships  to  look  to  than  they 
would  gain  from  the  smaller  cost  of  instruction.  In 
fact,  the  advantage  would  be  to  the  stupid  at  the 
expense  of  the  abler.  When  this  point  was 
debated  on  the  occasion  of  the  last  University 
Commission,  it  was  thought  preferable  to  spend 
the  funds  that  were  available,  in  increasing  Scho- 
larships whereby  the  abler  men  would  get  the 
means  of  paying  tutors,  rather  than  to  give  in- 
struction or  maintenance  below  cost-price.  The 
question  of  the  way  of  disposing  of  Scholarships 
is  an  important  one,  and  will  come  before  us 
presently. 

If   we    are    ricrht  in  concludinc;-  that  without 
rewards  we  can  not  look  for  high  proficiency,  the 


44^  Exa77ilnations  for  College 

conversion  of  the  prize  emoluments  into  gratuitous 
instruction  would  take  off  all  our  high  class 
students  except  those  who  had  an  innate  love,  not 
merely  for  intellectual  pursuits,  but  also  for  following 
them  in  a  strictly  regular  way.  Hence  Society 
would  not  get  the  cultivated  class  we  have  sup- 
posed her  to  require,  but  a  largess  would  be  con- 
ferred on  parents  throughout  the  country. 

With  reo-ard  to  men  of  moderate  abilities 
and  industry,  I  doubt  whether  it  matters  much 
to  the  country  whether  they  come  to  the  Uni- 
versity or  not.  Some  are  the  better  and  a 
few  the  worse  for  so  doing,  but  the  benefit  is 
more  to  the  man  in  "  social  advantages,"  than  to 
society  at  large.  I  f  professional  education  be  cheap- 
ened, I  have  shewn  how  it  would  operate  in  the 
case  of  the  Clergy  and  Schoolmasters.  In  Law  and 
Medicine,  an  increase  in  the  number  of  practitioners 
must  reduce  the  average  income  of  the  individual, 
and  as  the  fees  are  fixed  by  professional  rule,  the 
public  would  gain  nothing.  But,  then,  other  walks 
of  life — those  which  the  young  men  would  have 
entered  upon  if  they  had  not,  by  increased  facili- 
ties of  instruction,  been  induced  to  become  lawyers 
or  medical  men — would  benefit  by  being  relieved 
of  pressure.  Thus,  theoretically  speaking,  the 
salaries  of  clerks  in  offices  might  be  raised  by  the 


Felloiuships  and  ScJwlarsJiips.  449 

Universities  ofFerinsf  fjratuitous  instruction  in  Law 
and  Medicine. 

Now  let  us  look  at  the  other  side  of  the  ques- 
tion.    The  students  who  w^ant  instruction  in  the 
very  highest  branches   of  learning  or  in  abstruse 
sciences  are  few.     In  some  kinds  of  learning  there 
are    not  enough   pupils   in    all    England    wanting 
instruction  to  support   a  teacher,  unless  the  rate 
of  payment  were  so   high   as   to    be  prohibitive. 
The  student,  who   turns  towards  such  recondite 
studies,   designs   to  put   himself  in    a  position   in 
which   he    will    be    fitted    to    render   exceptional 
services  to  vSociety;  and  Society,  besides  inducing 
him    so    to    do     by    offering    him    a    reward    for 
his    learning    when    he     has    got     it,    may    ver)- 
properly  help  him  in  obtaining  it.     If,  however,  we 
establish  our  advanced  teacher  without  providing 
any  emoluments  to  be  got  by  the  learning  he  gives, 
the    teacher    would    be    almost    without    pupils, 
for   though  we    may  pay   the  teacher,  the    pupil 
has  to  find  head  work,  and  this  he  will  not  give 
for   nothing.      Hence   we   must  first   provide    in- 
ducements   to  work,  and  then  subsidize  teachers 
for  advanced  study,  especially  for  liberal  studies 
which  are  not  remunerative  in  themselves,  or  for 
recondite  matters  such   as   languages    which    are 
little  cultivated;  but  to  cheapen  by  means  of  en- 

L.  29 


450  Examinations  for  College 

dowments  an  ordinary  liberal  education,  such  as  is 
commonly  wanted  for  the  upper  middle  class, 
amounts  to  this,  that  the  state  or  some  endowed 
body  hereby  gives  a  largess  to  a  section  of  the 
people  by  presenting  them  with  what  they  would 
otherwise  provide  for  themselves. 

This  brings  me  to  a  point  on  which  I  must 
say  a  few  words.  I  feel  that  the  sentiment  which 
exists  against  the  "mercenary  spirit,"  as  it  is  called, 
of  Political  Economy,  may  be  excited  by  my 
supposing  teaching  and  learning  to  be  subject  to 
the  laws  of  that  science.  I  am  dealinof  with  thing's 
in  the  mass,  and  have  to  consider  the  motives  which 
actuate  the  majority.  Many  members  of  every 
class  or  profession  will  be  actuated  by  the  highest 
and  most  disinterested  motives,  but  the  action  of 
the  class,  as  a  body,  is  usually  determined  by  class 
interests  (see  p.  28).  Some  individuals  will  pursue 
learning  "for  its  own  sake,"  but  by  the  mass  of 
students  and  their  parents,  study  will  be  mostly 
regarded  in  the  same  light  as  professional  pursuits, 
namely,  for  what  is  to  come  of  it,  and  it  is  for 
this  mass  that  Institutions  are  framed. 

The  expression  "the  love  of  learning  for 
its  own  sake"  requires  consideration.  We  do 
not  mean  by  it,  I  tliiiik,  that  nothing  is  to  come 
of  the  learning.     There  are  some  people  indeed 


Fellowships  aiid  Scholarships.  451 


who  like  to  accumulate  knowleclg-e  as  a  collector 
does  curiosities,  and  who  then  throw  it  by,  satisfied 
with  possessing  it ;  but  these  are  not  the  kind  of 
people  we  want.  We  suppose  then  that  the 
learning  is  to  be  used  somehow,  and  if  used,  why 
not  used  in  an  Examination  as  well  as  in  writing 
a  book  or  a  "Programm^"  which  is  what  the 
German  student  looks  to  doing?  It  seems  to  me 
that  the  difference  lies  chiefly  in  the  Examina- 
tion use  of  knowlechre  beingf  immediate  and 
direct:  the  knowledcre  is  delivered  to  the  Ex- 
aminer  much  as  it  is  received  from  the  teacher. 
A  German  student  works  up  his  learning  into  a 
great  book;  this,  it  is  true,  is  his  way  of  getting 
consideration  for  it  and  answers  to  the  Examina- 
tion use  of  it ;  for  the  book  may  be  simply  an 
incumbrance  to  literature,  and  be  written  solely 
with  a  view  to  what  a  German  student  calls  his 
"vorkommen,"  that  is,  his  advancement;  but  still 
what  he  has  learnt  undergoes  some  transmutation 
in  his  mind. 

Again,  when  a  student  learns  what  is  neces- 
sary for  the  thorough  and  intelligent  exercise  of 
his  profession,  in  the  way  that  a   Civil  Engineer 

^  On  the  taking  of  Degrees,  on  School  Anniversaries  and  the  like. 
Germans  are  exjiected  to  produce  a  Dissertation,  called  a  "  Programm ;" 
this  serves  for  something  to  shew  when  tiiey  seek  promotion. 

29 2 


452  Examinations  fo)'  College 


will  sometimes  learn  mathematics,  then  he  has  a 
genuine  healthy  interest  in  his  subject,  and  is 
usually  a  satisfactory  pupil.  If  he  analysed  his 
motives — a  process  which  people  are  seldom  the 
better  or  wiser  for — he  would  find,  I  dare  say, 
that  he  did  not  love  mathematics  for  themselves, 
but  because  they  would  be  of  service  to  him  ; 
but  in  fact  he  really  meant  to  possess  himself  of 
them,  and  he  would  not,  therefore,  be  satisfied  with 
anything  short  of  a  thorough  comprehension  of 
each  step  of  reasoning,  and  of  the  mode  of  using 
what  he  had  learnt  (see  p.  354). 

If,  therefore,  by  inducing  people  to  "pursue 
knowledge  for  its  own  sake,"  we  mean,  leading 
them  to  learn  it  for  their  own  use  and  not  in 
order  to  dispose  of  it,  when  acquired,  we  get 
a  definite  meaning  for  the  phrase.  Examinations 
offer  a  market  ready  to  hand,  and  lead  people  to 
look  for  ''too  quick  returns,"  and  in  too  direct  a 
form  :   this  is  .the  evil  to  be  combated. 

Let  us  now  consider  how  the  present  Fellow- 
ship system  works.  A  young  man  gets  his  Fel- 
lowship at  twenty-three,  and  has  then  to  take  to  a 
Profession.  His  learning  has  served  its  turn  by 
being  produced  in  the  Examination  and  is  likely 
to  be  thrown  aside.  To  avoid  this,  we  must  pay 
not  only  for  the  knowledge  being  acquired,  but 


Felloivships  and  Scholarships.  453 

for  its  being  employed  in  the  way  we  wish  ;  that  is 
to  say,  we  must  hold  out  the  prospect  of  further 
reward,  for  putting  the  acquired  apparatus  to  good 
use.  At  present  our  whole  reward  is  given  for 
laying  up  the  apparatus;  some  recompense,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  required  for  this,  but  we  need  not 
give  more  than  is  necessary,  and  we  should  keep 
the  Fellowships  in  reserve  as  rewards  for  the  use 
made  of  the  training  and  knowledge. 

The  view  of  the  Fellowship  as  a  "ladder"  to 
a  position  in  life  hardly  comes  before  me  now, 
but  the  Studentships  would  perform  the  "  ladder" 
function  to  a  certain  extent,  as  well,  for  instance, 
as  Fellowships  did  in  the  early  part  of  the  century, 
when  they  were  of  about  the  same  value,  relatively 
to  prices,  that  I  propose  for  the  Studentships. 
This,  as  it  appears,  was  a  time  when  an  unusual 
number  of  able  young  men  from  the  Universities 
raised  themselves  by  these  "ladders"  to  leading 
positions  in  life.  Overmuch  pecuniary  reward 
generates  over-expectation  and  excessive  wants. 
and  if  our  young  men  are  given  such  good  in- 
comes at  starting  that  they  are  led  to  believe 
themselves  entitled  to  live  on  a  hicfher  and  a 
more  luxurious  scale  than  their  cotemporaries,  we 
are  doing  the  very  reverse  of  assisting  either 
them  or  the  cause  of  science.     The  Cfreat  ddvan- 


454  Exa7nmatio7is  for  College 

tage  of  Germany  as  regards  learning  lies  in  its 
simplicity  of  ways  of  living.  A  large  income  is, 
or  was,  much  less  a  social  necessity  there  than 
it  is  with   us. 

I  will  here,  as  I  have  promised  (p.  67),  glance 
at  the  way  in  which  the  problems  that  have 
occupied  us  have  been  dealt  with  in  Germany. 

When  writers  find  something  wrong  in  their 
own  neighbourhood,  they  will  often  indulge  in 
the  belief  that  things  must  be  as  they  ought  to 
be  somewhere  else;  and  educational  writers  turn 
to  Germany  as  their  happy  land.  Germany  had 
many  advantages  as  a  cradle  of  cultivation,  and 
has  some  still.  They  spring  from  the  homely  life 
of  her  middle  class,  and  the  absence  of  straining 
after  social  position.  I  hear  that  there  are  changes 
for  the  worse  in  these  respects;  still  she  is  free 
from  the  mass  of  idlers,  who  in  England  are 
brought  up  to  live  on  realized  property.  Parents 
there  are  on  the  side  of  education,  and  hard  de- 
voted work  is  still  part  of  the  religion  of  the  land. 
Yet  w^hile  we  are  pointing  to  Germany,  while 
our  writers  are  talking  of  the  "  crowded  lecture 
rooms  of  German  Professors,"  and  asking  why  we 
should  want  endowments  when  Germany  does 
without  them,  German  Professors  of  liberal  "Arts'* 
are  complaining    that    though  they   may  get   an 


Fellowships  and  Scholarships.  455 

averasfc  audience  of  a  dozen,  the  same  students 
seldom  drop  in  two  days  running;  they  cry  out 
that  the  "  Brodwissenschaften,"  that  is  to  say, 
professional  studies,  carry  off  the  students,  that 
liberal  education  is  on  the  decline,  and  that  even 
those  who  pursue  it  follow  it  with  a  view  to 
the  scholastic  profession ;  they  tell  us  that  endow- 
ments like  English  Fellowships  are  wanted  for 
keeping  the  Higher  Cultivation  alive. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  because  there  is 
no  B.A.  Degree  that  there  are  no  Examina- 
tions in  German  Universities.  Youths  go  to 
them  commonly  at  twenty,  that  is  two  years  later 
than  they  do  with  us,  and  their  general  education 
is  pretty  well  vouched  for  by  the  Examinations 
on  leaving  school.  There  was  formerly  an  Arts 
Examination  in  most  Universities;  this  is  now 
dropped,  and  I  have  heard  the  expediency 
of  the  step  questioned  ;  but  the  Doctor's  Degree, 
which  answers  to  our  Honours,  is  only  con- 
ferred after  a  "  rigorosiim  Examcn','  and  the 
diploma  '^ pro  facilitate  doccndi'"  is  given  by  the 
result  of  an  Examination  of  high  standard  in 
what  we  should  call  "  Arts,"  and  the  candidates 
are  placed  in  four  classes.  Position  in  thesi 
classes  leads  to  income,  for  in  Germany  teach- 
ing and  learning  form  perhaps  a  more  lucrative 


45  6  Examinations  for  College 

profession  absolutely,  and  far  more  so  relatively 
to  what  is  made  in  other  walks  of  life,  than  they  do 
with  us.  There  are  in  German-speaking  countries 
looo  Professors,  two-thirds  of  whom  receive  sti- 
pends besides  fees,  and  in  many  cases  the  emolu- 
ment is  as  good  as  is  got  in  our  own  Universities. 
The  German  Professor  is  a  person  retained  for 
the  service  of  learning.  Pie  is  kept  free  from 
worrying  duties,  which  are  inconsistent  with  study. 
He  has  no  discipline  to  enforce.  He  does  not 
pretend  to  teach,  that  is  to  say,  to  see  that  any 
one  learns;  he  delivers  what  he  has  to  say,  as 
a  preacher  does;  those  come  who  like,  and  at  the 
end  of  his  three-quarters  of  an  hour's  address 
any  pupil  who  has  anything  to  ask  him  will 
find  him  happy  to  answer  him;  but  he  has  no 
anxiety,  no  responsibilities  to  parents,  no  col- 
lision with  pupils;  so  that  his  position  is  a  good 
one  for  a  person  of  a  studious  turn,  and  the 
German  governments,  who  arc  acute  on  points  of 
economy,  act  on  the  principle  that  a  savant  may 
be  secured  for  a  moderate  payment,  because  the 
market  for  savants  is  limited;  but  when  they  want 
a  man  of  administrative  energy  for  the  manage- 
ment of  a  scientific  department  or  for  maintaining 
discipline  in  a  place  of  education,  they  know  that 
they  must  pay  more,  because  this  kind  of  ability  has 


FelloiusJups  and  Scholarships.  457 


a  ready  market  and  can  secure  its  price.  Hence, 
thouo'h  the  enthusiasm  for  knowledL^e  is  I  beheve 
stronger  in  Germany  than  in  England,  still  the 
position  of  equilibrium  of  the  whole  system  is 
determined,  as  it  is  with  us,  by  forces  of  the 
character  of  those  we  meet  with  in  economical 
science. 

The  inducements  to  laborious  study  are  more 
productive  in  Germany,  because  they  are  given 
for  the  fruit  or  at  the  right  season  for  fruit,  while 
ours  are  like  a  prize  given  for  the  fullest  blossom. 
Our  Fellowships  stimulate  the  University  student, 
they  reward  student  ivor/c,  and  this  no  doubt 
they  call  out  in  abundance  and  of  high  excellence. 

One  advantage  of  Germany  lies  in  the  con- 
tinuance of  study  beyond  the  student  course.  This 
study  is  independent  of  the  University;  it  is  often 
carried  on,  away  from  it,  under  penury  which  to  an 
Englishman  would  be  intolerable,  brightened  by 
devotion  to  study  and  the  hope  of  distinction. 
The  reward  most  commonl)-  looked  for  is  a  Pro- 
fessorship. This,  as  I  have  said,  does  not  mean 
a  position  in  which  composure  may  be  ruffled 
by  conflict  with  boobies,  or  exhaustion  caused  by 
attempting  to  enliven  the  heavy  by  a  transfusion 
of  energy :  the  German  Professor  has  not  to  do 
the  work  of  a  iM'cnch  one  at  a    Lvceum.     Such 


45 8  Exa7ninations  for  College 

a  position  would  be  no  boon  to  the  savant. 
But  the  Professorship  offers  leisure  for  the  further 
prosecution  of  study,  to  which  the  Professor  is  also 
stimulated  by  the  prospect  of  a  better  post :  and 
if  a  Professor  writes  a  book,  the  sale  of  enough 
copies  to  pay  expenses  is  practically  ensured. 

Thus  Germany  applies  a  graduated  stimulus 
through  life,  with  a  view  of  producing  the  most 
effective  set  of  experts.  We  may  note  that  absolute 
governments  regard  education  in  the  first  place  as 
a  means  of  manufacturing  •o.^^^r/i'  for  government 
use,  while  popular  ones  view  it  rather  as  a  means 
for  the  rearinsf  of  useful  citizens ;  and  in  all  com- 
parisons  of  systems  of  education,  this  should  be 
kept  in  mind. 

The  credit  of  an  English  University  rests  on 
the  character  of  the  students  it  turns  out.  As  Dr 
Pusey  is  reported  to  have  said  to  a  German  Profes- 
sor, "We  make  not  books  but  men."  It  is  on  the 
self-reliance  and  intelligence  of  the  graduates, 
as  shewn  in  life,  that  the  good  name  of  the  Uni- 
versity depends.  A  German  student,  eager  for  the 
honour  of  his  University,  enumerates  its  chief 
Professors  and  their  works  ;  an  English  under- 
graduate might  hardly  know  the  names  of  the 
Professors,  or  of  any  Lecturers  but  those  at  his 
own  College,  and  as  to  these  he  would  care  little 


Fellowships  and  ScJwlai'ships.  459 


whether  they  had  written  anything  or  not.  The 
University  with  him  means  the  "men,"  while  with 
the  German  it  means  the  Professors,  and  these 
are  regarded  less  as  teachers,  than  as  writers. 
Advancement  is  sought  in  Germany  by  writing 
on  every  possible  occasion,  and  this  is  nearly  as 
objectionable  as  our  Examinations  would  be  for 
grown  men.  It  leads  to  writing  for  writing's  sake, 
and  the  upholding  of  paradoxes  in  order  to  find 
something  to  say.  Now  and  then,  no  doubt,  a 
man  of  talent  by  being  forced  to  fix  his  attention 
on  a  point,  in  order  to  produce  a  Dissertation  for 
some  special  occasion,  hits  on  something  he  might 
not  otherwise  have  found,  but  this  case  is  one  in 
a  thousand. 

The  waste  caused  with  us  by  giving  excessive 
rewards  too  early  would  be  obviated  by  giving 
the  Fellowships  later  and  ior  performances.  They 
would  then  fulfil  the  function  of  the  German 
Professorship.  They  would  stimulate  work  and 
give  support  during  a  career  of  study. 

I  must  now  deal  briefly  with  the  subject  of 
College  Scholarships.  These  may  be  viewed  in 
two  lights,  as  follows  : 

I.  They  are  the  prizes  which  give  life  to  the 
whole  system  of  instruction  in  a  College.  A 
Scholarship  carries  a  status  with   it  which  is  much 


460  Examinations  for  College 

coveted,  hence  this  gives  us  a  reward  the  value  of 
which  does  not  wholly  depend  on  money  worth, 
and  the  action  of  which  is  thereby  the  more 
wholesome. 

Scholarships  which  are  intended  to  act  in  this 
way  are  usually  awarded,  among  the  Students  of 
the  College,  according  to  an  Examination  in  the 
work  of  the  year ;  they  may  be  augmented  or 
withdrawn  accordinof  to  the  result  of  the  Exami- 
nation  in  subsequent  years.  Thus  used,  Scholar- 
ships are  purely  educational  appliances  used  to 
supply  interest  and  concentrate  attention  on  the 
College  course.     This  was  the  old  Cambridge  plan. 

II.  But  these  emoluments  may  be  regarded 
as  means  of  "  securing  Sfood  men  for  the  Colles^e." 
In  this  case  the  Examination  cannot  be  in  con- 
nection with  the  College  course,  the  subjects  must 
be  chosen  with  reference  to  the  coming  Honour 
Schools  in  wdiich  distinction  is  expected.  Here 
we  find  two  varieties,  for  the  Examination  may 
be  open  (i)  to  all  undergraduates  in  the  Univer- 
sity, which  is  a  plan  commonly  adopted  at  Oxford, 
or  (2)  to  candidates  from  the  Schools  under  19 
or  20  years  of  age.  This  plan  originated  at 
Oxford,  but  is  now  in  use  at  both  Universities. 

The  action   of   Scholarships  regarded    in   the 
way  (1.)  is  unexceptionable  and  often  very  useful. 


FellowsJiips  and  Scholarships.  461 


There  are  subjects — English  Literature  and  Men- 
tal Philosophy  for  instance — which  are  ill  suited 
to  be  the  subjects  of  a  general  competitive  Exami- 
nation, but  which  may  be  taught  with  great 
advantage  by  a  College  Lecturer  to  a  class  round 
.his  table.  But  if  permanent  good  is  to  be  got, 
pupils  must  not  only  listen  and  take  part  in  the 
discussions  that  arise  ;  they  must  also  condense 
their  thoughts  into  a  shape  fit  for  expression,  and 
must  gather  up  the  whole  subject  at  once.  This 
they  will  not  do  unless  for  some  special  occasion  ; 
some  object  will  be  wanted,  and  an  Examination, 
backed  by  the  possibility  of  gaining  a  Scholar- 
ship, answers  this  purpose  admirably. 

The  use  of  Scholarships  in  the  way  (IL),  as 
means  of  securing  good  men,  may  be  looked  at 
with  a  view  to  the  s^ood  of  the  Collecje  or  to 
helping  the  scholar.  A  College  no  doubt  benefits 
by  the  presence  in  it  of  able  men;  the  tone 
of  the  society,  and  the  standard  of  attainment,  is 
raised  thereby.  It  may  not  indeed  be  well  for  a 
College  to  consist  exclusively  of  what  are  called 
"high  men."  A  clique  of  clever  young  men  living 
by  themselves  get  a  false  view  of  life.  They 
fancy  everything  is  to  be  done  by  cleverness,  and 
are  amazed,  when  they  come  to  practical  work,  at 
the  great  power  of  stupidity;  but  without  a  fair 


462  Exammatio7is  for  College 

sprinkling  of  ability  worse  evils  arise,  for  men 
seeing  nothing  better  acquiesce  contentedly  in 
their  own  mediocrity;  one  who  is  a  shade  better 
than  the  rest  passes  for  a  prodigy,  and  as  young 
people  must  have  an  aristocracy  of  their  own, 
they  will,  if  they  cannot  get  one  of  ability,  make, 
up  one  out  of  social  pretension  or  of  preeminence 
in  sports:  so  that  though  the  Head  or  Tutor  of 
a  College  may  have  got  past  setting  his  heart  on 
havine  hicrh  Deofrees  to  boast  of,  still,  from  the 
most  legitimate  motives,  he  will  wish  to  get  an 
accession  of  able  students. 

The  Examination  employed  in  case  (II.),  both 
for  varieties  (i)  and  (2),  would  be  a  sort  of  antici- 
pation of  the  Examination  for  Honours,  and  the 
Examiner  would  regard  the  doings  of  candidates 
with  a  view  to  the  Degrees  they  were  likely  to 
take. 

A  different  view  of  Scholarships  may,  however, 
be  taken.  They  may  be  regarded  as  helps  for 
"deserving  young  men."  Supposing,  as  in  case 
(I.),  that  the  Scholarships  are  confined  to  under- 
graduates who  have  commenced  residence,  it 
would  make  little  difference  as  to  the  persons 
chosen,  on  the  whole,  throughout  the  University 
whether  each  College  disposed  of  its  Scholarships 
by   its  own    educational    Examination   or   by  an 


Fellowships  and  Scholarships.  463 

Examination  open  to  the  whole  University,  always 
supposing,  what  is  practically  the  case,  that  the 
supply  of  Scholarships  at  each  College  is  adequate 
to  rewarding  those  who  may  properly  look  for 
reward. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  under  either  system, 
matters  so  adjust  themselves  that  no  deserving 
person  goes  unrewarded.  At  Oxford  the  College 
Scholarships  are  commonly  open  to  competition 
in  the  University.  At  Cambridge  the  system  of 
giving  the  Scholarships  in  the  College  is  the 
common  one,  but  a  student  of  another  College 
can  migrate,  and  obtain  a  Scholarship,  and  when 
a  College  is  known  to  have  few  promising  men  in 
a  particular  year,  this  commonly  happens. 

When  the  plan  (2)  is  adopted,  the  Exami- 
nations can  have  no  reference  to  the  instruction 
given  in  a  particular  College,  but  tcsiiiig  Exami- 
nations must  then  be  employed.  Preparing  for 
these  Examinations  causes  distraction  from  the 
educational  course.  There  is  besides  a  waste  of 
money  in  moving  from  College  to  College,  and 
also  a  loss  in  the  "break  of  orautre"  in  chantjinof 
one  set  of  instructors  for  another;  the  interest, 
moreover,  of  a  College  Tutor  in  his  men  is  weak- 
ened by  the  idea  that  by  teaching  them  well  he 
is  only  giving  them  wings  to  fly  awa}'. 


464  Examinations  for  College 


I  now  come  to  a  matter  which  many  of  us 
regard  as  the  source  of  much  evil,  the  "  Open 
Scholarships,"  given  by  competitive  Examination 
before  admission  to  the  College. 

Twenty  years  ago  there  were  a  few  only  so 
given.  These  were  at  Oxford;  to  obtain  one  of 
them  conferred  great  credit,  and  the  plan  at- 
tracted very  able  men  to  the  particular  Colleges. 
The  system  had  been  considered  in  some  Colleges 
at  Cambridge,  but  the  objections  to  it  were 
thousrht  to  outweicrh  the  advantao;-es,  and  it  was 
not  adopted  until  after  the  change  of  Statutes  in 
i860,  when  circumstances  made  it  necessary.  The 
Oxford  Statutes  had  been  altered  a  few  years 
before.  The  Oxford  Colleges,  seeing  the  high 
repute  attained  by  Balliol  and  other  Societies 
which  had  long  given  Open  Scholarships,  threw 
open  their  Scholarships  to  competition  before 
entrance.  This  eave  a  crreat  stimulus  to  the 
schools.  The  clever  boys  were  drawn  to  Oxford 
in  large  numbers,  and  Cambridge  was  forced  to 
follow  in  the  track.  Soon  the  competition  of 
College  with  College  raised  the  prices  from  ^50 
to  £']0  and  eventually  to  ^120.  Schoolmasters 
found  that  a  clever  boy  was  a  valuable  article, 
which  by  proper  management  might  be  made  to 
fetch  a  considerable  sum.    The  schoolmaster  not 


Fellowships  and  Scholarships.  465 

only  wished  to  do  well  for  his  scholar,  but  to  get 
due  credit  for  his  school  in.  the  newspapers. 
"I  cannot  afford,"  wrote  a  schoolmaster  to  me, 
about  1858,  when  we  were  suffering  at  Cambridge 
from  the  drain  of  ability  to  Oxford,  "to  send  boys 
to  Cambridge,  though  I  should  like  to  do  so. 
They  may  indeed  get  Scholarships  at  the  end 
of  the  year,  but  no  one  knows  what  schools  they 
come  from  ;  while  my  boys  who  go  up  to  Oxford 
and  get  Open  Scholarships  spread  my  credit  all 
over  the  country."  When  the  advantage  of  the 
parent  and  of  the  schoolmaster  pulled  in  the  same 
direction  the  force  was  irresistible.  Soon  the 
public  came  to  measure  the  efficiency  of  a  School 
by  the  number  of  these  prizes  it  carried  off.  This 
has  been  most  mischievous,  as  many  schoolmasters 
feel.  It  leads  to  the  able  being  overtaught  and 
the  duller  neglected. 

Mr  J.  M.  Wilson,  of  Rugby,  writes  as  follows 
to  the  Joiirnal  of  Edtication  in  Nov.  1876: 

"  Twenty  years  ago,  more  or  less,  the  Colleges  generall}' 
threw  open  their  Scholarships  to  be  competed  for  by  boys  at 
school.  It  seemed  as  if  much  was  to  be  said  for  the  change  ; 
it  seemed  to  open  the  endowments  of  the  Universities  to  boys 
of  talent  of  all  ranks  ;  it  seemed  even  to  benefit  the  Colleges ; 
and  while  only  a  few  Colleges  were  then  open,  they  were  the 
gainers ;  but  when  all  ofier  scholarships  it  becomes  a  contest 
among  them.     They  bid,  and  try  to  outbid  one  anoth.cr,  for 

L.  30 


466  Examinations  for  College 

clever  boys.  It  alters  the  distribution  of  the  clever  boys  among 
the  Colleges  to  some  extent,  and  that  is  all. 

But  the  effect  on  schools  is  much  greater  and  more  serious. 
For  the  winning  of  these  Scholarships  has  become  the  great 
object  of  many  if  not  most  schools.  Boys  go  up  and  try  at 
one  College  after  another,  under  the  advice  of  judicious  men, 
who  know  the  probable  standard  at  each  College.  Scholarship 
classes  are  formed  at  school,  examination  papers  are  studied, 
regular  education  is  laid  aside  for  special  preparation,  the 
boy  is  cleverly  steered,  and  the  cleverest  boy  and  cleverest 
jockey  jointly  win  the  prize,  and  divide  the  applause ;  the 
honour  is  duly  paraded  at  the  speech-day  by  the  smiling  head- 
master to  smiling  boys,  applause  follows  which  lasts  for 
several  moments,  and  care  is  taken  to  have  the  success  an- 
nounced in  all  the  papers. 

I  do  not  hesitate  to  say,  after  a  good  many  years'  expe- 
rience, that  the  effect  of  these  Scholarships  on  schools  is  almost 
unredeemedly  bad.  They  are  not  necessary  as  a  stimulus; 
they  are  totally  inadequate  and  misleading  as  a  means  of  com- 
paring school  with  school ;  and  they  do  a  good  deal  in  some 
cases  to  degrade  the  work  of  masters  and  boys  alike. 

There  would  be  nothing  but  gain  to  the  great  schools,  and 
to  the  cause  of  higher  education  in  England,  if  all  the  Col- 
leges at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  announced  that  in  future 
Scholarships  would  only  be  awarded  to  men  in  actual  resi- 
dence ;  and  the  Colleges  themselves  would  be  no  losers  on  the 
whole.  But  if  it  is  thought  by  the  majority  of  those  who  have 
the  best  means  of  judging  that  any  considerable  number  of 
boys  who  now  go  to  the  Universities  as  scholars  would  not  go 
at  all  but  for  the  diminution  of  expense  and  the  prospect  of 
ultimate  success  that  winning  a  scholarship  affords,  it  would 
not  be  impossible  to  make  the  Certificate  Examination  serve 
the  purjjose  of  a  Common  School  Examination  for  both  Uni- 
versities." 


Fellowships  and  ScJiolarsJiips.  467 


When  the  system  was  first  introduced  some 
Colleges  endeavoured  to  frame  their  Examinations 
for  Open  Scholarships  educationally,  and  to  take 
account  of  Classics,  Mathematics,  and  English  all 
together.  But  very  soon  the  schoolmasters  found 
that  their  ablest  boys  were  needed  for  the  special 
Scholarships,  while  second-rate  boys  could  be  pre- 
pared to  carry  off  those  which  were  given  for 
general  proficiency;  hence  College  after  College 
has  been  driven  to  "specialize"  the  Scholarships, 
which  are  now  almost  always  given  for  excellence 
in  one  department.  This  is  most  injurious. 
Moreover  a  very  mischievous  "special  prepara- 
tion" may  be  given  in  certain  subjects,  Mathe- 
matics especially.  For,  the  range  being  limited, 
much  may  turn  on  adroitness  in  solving  certain 
classes  of  problems,  and  this  kind  of  cleverness 
may  be  stimulated  to  the  injury  of  the  student. 
Examination  papers  are  carefully  studied  by  tutors 
and  pupils,  and  some  competitors  read  with  tutors 
at  the  University  to  get  "  University  style,"  a 
good  thing  enough  in  due  time,  but  it  should 
not  be  consciously  aimed  at  by  boys  of  seven- 
teen. Parents  expect  the  Schoolmasters  to  watch 
for  openings  in  the  Colleges,  and  to  dispone 
of  their  sons  to  the  best  advantage.  But  the 
greatest  evil    lies    in  the  mcrccnar}-   si)i'rit  which 

".c  —  2 


468  Examinations  for  College 

is  called  out  by  the  prominence  too  early  given 
to  making  money.  "I  will  not  take  less  than 
;^ioo  a  year  for  that  boy"  writes  a  master; 
"but  I  have  another,  a  good,  useful  lad,  Avhom 
you  can  have  for  ^70."  One  boy,  too,  feels 
aggrieved  if  a  schoolfellow  have  fetched  more 
than  he  has.  And  when  a  youth  has  obtained 
a  Scholarship  I  have  heard  of  his  master 
wTitinof  for  leave  for  him  to  cfo  in  for  another 
elsewhere,  which  might  be  worth  ^10  more.  By 
two  victories  the  master  would  get  double  credit. 
Boys  who  are  -"run"  for  Scholarships  at  an  early 
asfe  are  sometimes  not  allowed  to  take  them  if 
they  win,  in  order  that  they  may  achieve  a  larger 
Scholarship  and  more  (fclat  for  their  school  in  the 
following  year.  In  such  a  state  of  things,  when 
boys  are  run  for  "plates"  like  race-horses,  can  we 
wonder  at  complaints  that  young  men  are  actuated 
not  by  a  romantic  love  for  learning,  not  by  regard 
to  their  teachers  or  their  College,  but  entirely 
by  sordid  considerations,  and  that,  in  the  words  of 
a  Cambridge  tutor,  they  think  that  their  relations 
with  the  rest  of  the  world  arc  shaped  by  "rights 
and  not  by  duties." 

A  parent  not  needing  pecuniary  help  would 
do  better  to  pick  out  a  College,  and  take  his 
chance   of  his   son    getting  a  Scholarship   there 


Fellowships  and  Scholarships.  469 

than  to  send  him  round  ttying  at  one  College 
after  another,  and  thus  breaking  up  his  school- 
time.  The  holiday  at  the  University  with  old 
schoolfellows  may  be  pleasant,  but  it  is  costly  and 
distracting. 

It  was  an  old  objection  to  the  plan,  that  early 
successes,  over-msuch  valued,  would  make  youths 
conceited,  and  that  disappointment  would  follow. 
A  return  of  the  careers  of  the  winners  of  Open 
Scholarships  would  furnish  instances  of  this,  es- 
pecially in  the  case  of  the  lower  prizes.  Many 
young  men  will  work  hard  under  pressure,  striving 
for  what  they  are  eager  to  get,  but  having  no 
interest  in  learning,  and  some  of  these  will 
indemnify  themselves  afterwards  by  basking  in 
their  glory  and  taking  their  fill  of  pleasure. 

One  difficulty  of  the  question  arises  from  the 
fact  that  there  are  a  few  young  men  who,  with- 
out such  help,  WTOuld  not  come  to  the  University, 
and  who  quite  justify  the  outlay  on  their  behalf. 
There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  many  who  are 
lured  to  the  University  by  such  means,  who  yield 
society  no  return  for  having  given  them  a  high 
education,  and  who,  after  spending  three  years 
and  orettino;  a  second-rate  deo^ree,  which  will  brinof 
no  emolument,  are  worse  off  than  if  they  had 
gone   into   business   at    first,   and  who,  owing  to 


470  Examinatio7ts  for  College 

the  spirit  In  Avhich  they  have  worked,  have  no 
compensation  In  the  way  of  enlarged  capacities 
for  usefulness  or  for  intellectual  pleasure. 

Another  practical  difficulty  in  dealing  with 
these  Scholarships  Is  this.  No  one  College  can 
act  for  itself.  Hardly  a  person  likely  to  get  a 
good  degree  in  Honours  now  comes  to  the  Uni- 
versity without  a  Scholarship,  so  that  for  a  College 
to  say  that  It  will  give  no  Scholarships,  or 
only  give  them  under  less  attractive  conditions 
than  other  Colleges,  is  equivalent  to  giving  up 
having  candidates  for  Honours.  Here  then  is  a 
case  for  legislative  interference,  because  Colleges 
owino-  to  their  isolation  cannot  abandon  what  all, 
I  believe,  at  Cambridge  hold  to  be  mischievous. 
Common  action  Is  necessary  for  all  the  Colleges 
at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  because  if  one  or  two 
retained  the  system  these  Avould  secure  the  ablest 
men.  By  offering  a  Scholarship  of  ;^200  a  year, 
a  Colleofe  mlMit  make  almost  sure  of  obtalnlno- 
a  Scholar  who  would  gain  high  distinction  :  thus 
the  credit  which  a  College  is  supposed  to  derive 
from  the  high  degrees  of  its  students  may  be 
greatly  due  to  its  purchasing  power.  I  am  not 
without  hope  that  the  expected  University  legis- 
lation may  help  in  this  matter. 

I   agree  with   Mr  Wilson,   that    Scholarships 


Fellowships  and  Scholarships.  471 

miL;ht  properly  be  offered  to  those  who  had  done 
well  in  the  Local  Examinations,  or  in  those  of 
the  Joint  University  Board,  and  this  I  think 
would  meet  the  needs  of  the  case.  If  we  cannot 
free  ourselves  from  this  pernicious  system  alto- 
gether, in  the  way  proposed,  the  evils  might  be 
reduced  by  so  diminishing-  the  number  of  Scholar- 
ships as  to  confine  them  to  able  men.  Colleges 
sometimes  give  away  several  Exhibitions  of  £y::) 
or  ^40  to  youths,  some  of  whom  profit  little  by 
being  drawn  to  the  University,  and  thus  a  great 
waste  of  money  is  incurred.  Scholarships  should 
be  limited  to  certain  values,  say  ^80  and  ^50,  to 
prevent  the  bidding  of  College  against  College. 
The  Examinations  should  also  take  place  at 
fixed  periods ;  the  boys  should  be  under  nineteen 
years  of  age;  and  these  Open  Scholarships  should 
only  be  tenable  until  an  opportunity  offered  for 
obtaining  a  Foundation  Scholarship  ^ 

1  The  system  will  be  hard  to  overthrow,  because  it  scatters  bounties. 
Help,  as  I  have  said,  given  to  a  lad  of  marked  ability  and  small  means,  is 
not  eleemosynary,  because  Society  gets  its  quid  pro  tpto.  But  if  the  youth  be 
only  of  fair  industry  and  intelligence,  it  is  doubtful  whether  his  usefulness 
to  Society  is  increased  enough  by  his  having  a  higher  education  to  make  it 
worth  while  to  take  him  out  of  his  own  walk  of  life.  In  this  case  there  is 
hardly  more  reason  why  we  should  provide  such  persons  gratuitously  with 
higher  education  than  with  better  clothes  or  maintenance.  If  we  give  help 
professedly  as  charity,  we  ought  to  enquire  into  the  means  of  the  recijiients. 
This  is  not  an  easy  or  pleasant  task.  The  City  Companies  effect  this  in 
in  some  degree,  and  their  Exliibitions,  as  far  as  my  observation  has  gone, 


472,   Examinations  for  College  Fellowships,  &c. 


have  been  bestowed  with  excellent  judgment,  and  have  given  help  just 
where  it  was  well  justified. 

Sizarships  effect  a  similar  pui-pose.  Persons  of  much  social  pretension 
will  not  send  their  sons  to  College  as  Sizars,  and  this  preserves  them  for  the 
class  they  are  intended  for.  They  are  peculiar  to  Cambridge,  and  are 
given  away  like  Scholarships.     (See  p.  459,  head  I.) 

Some  persons  cannot  venture  on  a  University  course  unless  they  first 
secure  assistance.  These  might  come  to  the  University  as  Unattached 
Students.  They  might  easily  arrange  with  a  College  to  attend  its  course  of 
lectures,  and  to  compete  with  the  Students  of  that  College  for  a  Scholar- 
ship at  the  end  of  the  first  Academical  year.  If  they  should  fail,  they 
would  then  have  incurred  no  expense  beyond  the  difference  between  their 
maintenance  in  the  University  town  and  at  their  own  homes. 

I  fear  that  boys  at  school  are  getting  the  idea,  that  if  they  are  unlikely 
to  get  an  open  Scholarship  there  is  "no  good"  in  their  working.  This 
comes  of  making  too  much  of  bribes  as  compared  with  duty  and  authority. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ON    MARKING   AND    CLASSING. 

Persons  not  practically  acquainted  with  Exami- 
nations may  require  to  know  something  of  the 
machinery  by  which  the  Examiner  gives  effect 
to  his  judgment.  I  propose  therefore  to  give 
some  account  of  the  mechanism  employed,  avoid- 
ing all  technical  details,  and  confining  myself  to 
what  is  required  for  a  good  comprehension  of 
the  general  action  of  Examinations. 

Two  modes  of  proceeding  come  under  our 
notice  ;  one  is  called  deciding  "  by  marks,"  and 
the  other  ''judging  by  impression."  These  pro- 
cesses are  not  distinct  in  their  nature,  for  marks 
are,  in  fact,  only  the  record  of  particular  impres- 
sions ;  but  besides  these  particular  impressions 
produced  by  each  answer,  the  Examiner  some- 
times receives  a  general  impression  from  the 
ensemble  of  a  candidate's  work  which  is  too  in- 
definite to  be  estimated  numerically,  and  weighed 
against  a  piece  of  translation,  or  a  proposition 
in  mathematics,  but  which    may  still  help  us  to 


474  On  Marking  and  Classing. 

judge  of  his  qualifications.  These  processes  will 
be  best  understood  by  a  glimpse  at  the  mechan- 
ism when  It  is  at  work. 

It  makes  a  difference  whether  the  Examiner, 
as  commonly  happens,  is  acting  in  concert  with 
others  and  has  only  a  portion  of  a  branch  of  the 
Examination  entrusted  to  him,  so  that  his  results 
have  to  be  weighed  along  with  those  of  other 
Examiners,  or  whether,  like  an  elector  to  a 
Scholarship  or  Fellowship,  he  have  only  to  make 
up  his  own  mind,  state  his  opinions,  and  give 
his  vote.  In  the  first  case,  it  is  hardly  possible 
to  arrive  at  a  result  except  by  marks,  if  anything 
like  an  order  of  merit  be  required  ;  but  If  It  were 
only  necessary  to  place  candidates  In  three  or 
four  classes,  this  might  be  done  by  voting.  In 
the  case  of  each  candidate,  whether  he  should  be 
in  the  first  class  or  lower,  and  so  on  for  each 
class  :  some  remarks  on  this  mode  of  proceeding 
will  be  made  presently.  If  marks  be  used,  each 
subject  must  have  a  definite  value  assigned  to 
It.  I  have  discussed  the  principles  on  which 
these  values  should  be  determined,  pp.  380 — 385. 
It  is  moreover  necessary  that  Examiners  should 
have  some  common  understanding  as  to  the 
degree  of  perfection  corresponding  to  certain 
proportions  of  marks  ;  for,  supposing  the  Mathe- 


On  JMarking  a?id  C/assing.  475 

matical  Examiner  to  be  rigorous,  and  the  Italian 
Examiner  to  be  easily  pleased,  the  mathematician 
will  suffer  in  comparison  with  the  Italian  scholar. 
This  difficulty,  which  is  analogous  to  what  is 
called  the  "  personal  equation "  of  two  astrono- 
mical observers,  is  a  considerable  one,  and  is 
greater  the  more  various  the  subjects  are.  Even 
the  same  Examiner  judges  differently,  according 
as  he  is  fresh  or  wearied. 

If  an  Examiner  have  merely  to  give  his  vote 
and  state  his  opinion  he  need  use  no  marks,  and 
if  he  does,  they  are  to  him  merely  notes  of  passing 
impressions  and  are  equivalent  to  zvords,  such  as 
"  excellent,"  "fair,"  "■  indifferent,"  &c.  There  is  an 
intermediate  case,  in  which  an  Examiner  has  the 
absolute  control  of  one  subject,  but  the  number 
of  marks  allotted  to  his  subject  is  fixed.  In  this 
case  the  Examiner  may  judge  of  the  merits  of 
the  papers  handed  to  him  in  any  way  he  likes, 
provided  that  he  arrives  at  numerical  results  in 
proper  relation  to  the  maximum  assigned  for 
perfection.  He  may  use  marks  if  he  pleases 
to  register  his  impressions,  and  he  may  give 
additional  marks  where  an  answer  strikes  his 
fancy,  or  for  general  st)lc,  or  take  off  marks 
beyond  those  assigned  to  the  particular  questions 
for   a   blunder  which   reveals   an    abyss    of  mis- 


47^  On  Marking  and  Classing. 

apprehension.  But  he  must  translate  his  resuhs 
into  the  scale  which  has  been  agreed  on. 

When  an  Examination  is  conducted  by  marks, 
the  order  of  merit  is  determined  by  the  addition 
of  these  marks,  however  they  are  obtained.  Can- 
didates often  have  an  idea  that  it  will  "  go  against 
them "  to  have  got  their  marks  in  one  way  or 
another,  as  though  some  impression  were  derived 
from  their  performance  viewed  as  a  whole.  Such 
an  impression  no  doubt  might  be  drawn  from- see- 
ing how  the  marks  are  obtained.  When  we  cast 
our  eyes  down  the  list  of  the  marks  of  candidates 
in  the  Indian  Civil  Service  Examination,  we  in- 
voluntarily do  form  some  such  judgment,  but,  as 
a  fact,  when  notice  has  been  given  of  the  marks 
assigned  to  each  subject,  no  consideration  is  paid 
to  anything  but  the  aggregate  of  marks,  and  the 
places  are  determined  sim^^ly  by  addition.  It  is 
only  when  the  list  has  to  be  divided  into  classes 
that  there  is  room  for  discussion  ;  then  the  ques- 
tion, "Where  are  we  to  draw  the  line?"  often 
gives  room  to  debate,  and  the  character  of  the 
work  of  the  candidates  on  the  debateablc  [rround 
may  then  be  canvassed  in  some  degree. 

In  the  case  of  an  election  for  a  Fellowship  or 
for  some  single  prize,  the  Examiners,  as  I  have  said, 
often  vote  according  to  the  impression  each  gets 


0)1  Marking  and  Classing.  477 

from  his  own  paper,  or  from  the  statements  of  the 
other  electors.  This  mode  of  proceeding  has  the 
advantage  that  it  gives  full  scope  to  impression, 
so  that  if  the  Examiners  are  keen-sighted  and 
have  an  eye  for  ability,  they  will  probably  judge 
well  for  their  purpose;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  an 
Examiner  who  is  not  used  to  discriminate,  or  who 
has  some  crotchet,  may  do  much  harm;  for  it  is 
the  weak  point  of  this  system  that  a  vote  doubt- 
fully given  may  counteract  one  given  in  the  strong- 
est possible  conviction.  Two  Examiners,  for 
instance,  may  feel  no  doubt  that  A  is  much  better 
than  B,  and  three  others  may  be  uncertain,  but 
finally  decide  to  vote  for  B,  who  is  thereby  elected ; 
whereas,  if  the  matter  had  been  decided  by  the 
addition  of  the  marks,  furnished  by  all  the  Exa- 
miners, A  might  have  been  the  successful  candi- 
date. Under  this  system,  also,  an  Examiner  of 
strong  w^ill  and  positive  manner  will  sometimes 
obtain  a  preponderance  which  is  not  justified  by 
his  soundness  of  judgment. 

I  must  now  return  to  speak  of  the  way  in  which 
marks  are  given.  The  system  of  numerical  mark- 
ing, as  has  been  said  above,  came  into  use  in 
Mathematical  Examinations,  where  it  was  found  to 
work  well.  There  is  no  subject  in  which  marks  can 
be  allotted  with  such  precision  as  in  Mathematics. 


47^  On  Alar  king  and  Classing. 

The  various  elements  of  Examination  value, 
that  is  to  say,  the  relative  difficulty  and  importance 
of  questions,  the  amount  of  previous  reading 
needed  to  answer  them,  and,  what  we  shall  pre- 
sently have  to  touch  upon,  the  time  requisite  to 
write  out  the  answers,  can  be  all  more  readily 
estimated  and  allowed  for  in  subjects  which  can 
be  treated  mathematically  than  in  most  others. 

In  Mathematics,  something  has  usually  to  be 
proved;  if  the  proof  holds,  full  marks  are  commonly 
given,  and  if  it  fails,  few  or  none  are  allowed. 
Hence  the  discretion  of  the  Examiner  only  comes 
into  play  in  dealing  with  partial  solutions,  or  in' 
the  explanation  of  principles  and  description  of 
experiments,  instruments,  &c. :  the  consequence 
is  that  two  Mathematical  Examiners,  indepen- 
dently marking  a  set  of  papers,  will  usually 
afjree  within  a  few  marks.  But  with  Lanofuaees, 
especially  as  regards  Composition,  and  also  with 
Historical  and  Speculative  subjects,  the  case  is 
different.  The  class  of  questions  which  begin 
with,  "  Give  a  short  account  of,"  "  Discuss  the 
question,"  or  "Examine  the  principle,"  cannot  be 
marked  on  generally  accepted  rules  :  one  Exa- 
miner may  have  one  view  and  one  another  as  to 
the  proper  starting-point  for  the  answer  and  the 
range   it   ought   to   cover.      In    tlie    Universities 


On  Alar  king  and  Classing.  479 

some  kind  of  understanding  prevails  on  this  point, 
and  candidates  are  practised  in  answering  in  the 
expected  form;  but  when  candidates  from  various 
quarters  are  set  down  to  answer  a  paper  involving 
such  questions,  various  elements  of  uncertainty  pre- 
sent themselves,  and  these  operate  to  a  greater 
extent  if  the  time  allowed  for  doing  the  paper  be 
short.  For  instance,  some  candidates  will  spend 
too  great  a  proportion  of  their  time  over  a  few 
questions,  and  others  will  attempt  too  many,  and 
send  up  scanty  answers^.  Sometimes  Examiners 
can  use  their  discretion  and  give  extra  marks  for 

^  Here  we  see  one  source  of  the  advantage  gained  by  those  candidates 
who  have  been  directly  trained  for  displaying  their  knowledge  in  an  Exami- 
nation. A  pupil  who  has  had  such  assistance  understands  what  the 
Examiner  means  him  to  do,  and  also  how  he  may  best  employ  his  time 
upon  a  paper  of  questions.  Hence  preparing  for  Examinations  differs  from 
teaching,  properly  so  called,  in  this,  that  besides  putting  knowledge  into  the 
pupil  and  giving  him  the  use  of  his  brains,  he  must  be  made  acquainted  with 
the  conventions  of  Examinations  and  taught  to  put  07d  his  knowledge  to  the 
best  advantage.  The  proper  business  of  a  school  is  teaching,  but  when 
pupils  are  looking  to  competition  outside  the  school,  they  must  be  "pre- 
pared" for  such  contests.  If  this  is  done  in  the  school,  it  necessitates  the 
withdrawal  of  pupils  from  some  of  the  ordinary  \\ork,  and  the  setting  up 
of  a  "special  preparation"  department ;  if  it  be  not  done,  pupils  will  go  to  an 
establishment  which  makes  such  preparation  its  particular  business.  The 
drilling  for  Examinations  is  not  without  its  use  in  its  proper  time — it  gives 
precision  and  self-knowledge ;  but  the  matter  should  be  well  assimilated 
before  it  has  to  be  displayed,  otherwise  we  get  what  is  called  "cram."  If 
the  Examination  be  confined  to  the  school,  all  the  pupils  are  similarly 
circumstanced,  and  the  regular  school-work  need  not  be  interniptcd.  The 
subjects  will,  of  course,  be  reviewed  ;  but  this  falls  in  with  legitimate 
teaching.  In  examining  a  school,  a  knowledge  of  school-methods  is  of 
ccurse  requisite,  as  well  as  good  judgment  and  an  understanding  of  boys. 


480  On  Mai^king  and  Classing. 

a  question  which  is  answered  more  thoroughly 
than  may  be  quite  necessary,  but  frequently  the 
conditions  of  the  Examination  or  the  understand- 
ing that  exists  among  the  candidates  may  render 
it  improper  to  do  so.  Moreover,  if  a  discursive 
mode  of  dealing  with  a  paper  were  encouraged, 
the  difficulty  of  examining  would  be  increased. 

The   Examiner  is  usually  left  free  to  distri- 
bute the  marks  allowed  for  his  paper  among  his 
questions,  and  he  may  find   it  desirable  to  alter 
this  distribution  in  the  course  of  examining.      If, 
for  instance,  he  finds  that  some  question  is  com- 
monly answered,  nearly   in  the    same   terms,   he 
will    conclude  that  he  has  lis^hted  on  somethinof 
contained  in   a  manual  in  common  use,  and  this 
may  affect    his  view   of  the   value   of   his  ques- 
tion.    When  the  object  is  only  to  pick  out  a  few 
candidates  from  a  mass,  the  Examiner  should  be 
left,  as  I  have  said  before,  as  free  as  possible  to 
exercise  his  judgment,  unfettered  by  the  notion  of 
being  under  a  covenant  with  the  candidate,  to  give 
marks  for  all  that  is  correct ;  but  where  such  an 
understanding  exists,  or  where  a  large  number  of 
Examiners  are  employed,  some  of  whom  may  be 
inexperienced,  it  is  desirable  that  definite  marks 
should   be  allotted  to   each  question,  and  that  a 
list  of  the  marks  given  should  be  produced;  this 


On  Marking  and  Classing.  481 

affords  a  guarantee  that  every  answer  has  been 
properly  considered,  and  also  a  means  of  investi- 
gating complaints  of  the  loss  of  papers,  or  the 
like. 

I  have  said  that  the  result  of  the  marks  eiven 
and  that  of  the  impression  received  do  not  always 
correspond  ;  on  this  point  there  is  something  to 
observe.  Impression  is  made  up  of  many  ele- 
ments, some  of  which  belong  to  the  Examiner's 
particular  taste,  and  others  to  the  pupil's  style  of 
work.  But  this  discrepancy  may  arise  from  a  more 
complete  view  being  taken  of  the  entire  work, 
when  we  judge  by  impression,  than  when  we  judge 
by  the  aggregate  of  the  marks  allowed  for  each 
scrap  or  clause  of  a  question  which  is  rightly 
answered.  For  instance,  a  candidate  who  sends 
up  a  number  of  answers  and  gets  credit  for  parts 
of  each  but  does  no  one  question  thoroughly  well, 
may  get  an  aggregate  of  marks  which  will  sur- 
prise the  Examiner,  who  may  la)'  down  his  papers 
with  but  a  poor  opinion  of  him.  It  may  be  said 
that  the  Examiner  in  this  case  has  not  marked 
the  answers  with  proper  judgment,  but  such  a 
discrepancy  is  sometimes  hard  to  avoid.  The 
difficulty  arises  usually  from  the  multiplicity  of  the 
objects  which  the  Examination  is  meant  to  effect. 
The  Examiner  is  expected  to  pronounce  both  on 
L.  .^i 


482  On  j\ larking  and  Classing. 

the  ability  and  knowledge  of  the  candidate,  while 
he  must  set  his  questions  with  a  view  to  some 
educational  programme;  possibly  too  the  Exami- 
nation may  be  a  mere  qualifying  Examination  for 
some  of  the  candidates,  and  so  he  may  have  to  fix 
a  standard  for  "passing"  and  act  as  considerately 
in  some  cases  as  if  he  were  administering  criminal 
law.  He  must  therefore  look  wnth  different  eyes 
on  the  performances  of  the  best  and  the  worst; 
he  adapts  his  vision  to  detect  shades  of  difference 
between  the  abler;  but  if  he  looked  half  as 
closely  into  the  work  of  the  worst  that  he  does 
into  that  of  the  best  candidates,  the  slaughter 
would  be  disastrous. 

Another  cause  of  the  difference  between  the 
impression  given  and  the  score  obtained  is  that 
negative  marks  are  not  employed.  The  Exami- 
ner, according  to  usage,  can  at  most  withhold  all 
marks  from  the  question  in  which  a  bad  blunder 
occurs,  although  the  ill  impression  conveyed  to  him 
may  be  inadequately  represented  by  this  penalty. 
These  understood  modes  of  proceeding  have 
not  however  been  adopted  without  good  grounds. 
An  Examiner  has  in  all  cases  a  notion  of  the 
answer  he  wishes  to  receive,  to  this  he  gives  full 
marks,  and  there  is  a  difficulty  in  giving  more 
jnarks  for  a  very  thorough  answer,  because  possibly 


On  Markmg  and  Classing.  483 

other  men  might  have  answered  more  at  length 
if  they  had  understood  that  the  Examiner  wished 
them  to  do  so.  Again,  an  Examiner  may  occasion- 
ally be  struck  by  a  remark,  which  is  rather  beside 
the  question,  but  if  he  gave  marks  for  it,  candi- 
dates would  bring  In  brilliant  observations  taken 
out  of  their  tutor's  "Note-book  of  Original 
Thoughts."  There  is  also  this  objection  to  the 
employment  of  negative  marks.  A  nervous  stu- 
dent, fearing  to  damage  himself  by  a  bad  blunder, 
may  be  prevented  from  attempting  questions  In 
which  he  might  shew  himself  to  advantage,  and 
this  terror  might  have  a  depressing  effect:  an 
Examiner  wishes  to  see  a  man  at  his  best,  and 
he  does  best  when  he  works  fearlessly.  Still 
bad  spelling,  bad  grammar,  or  guesses  which  shew 
utter  Ignorance,  ought  to  involve  some  positive 
loss. 

The  general  character  of  the  questions  selected 
by  the  candidate  influences  impression,  but  may 
have  little  effect  on  the  marking.  Some  candidates 
will  steadily  decline  all  questions  which  touch  on 
points  of  difficulty,  such  points,  for  example,  as 
are  scantily  explained  in  the  common  text-books, 
or  which  require  nicety  of  conception  and  clear- 
ness of  head.  Lastly,  the  general  style  of  ex- 
pression and  of  arrangement  conveys  important 


4S4  On  Marking  and  Classing. 

Information  to  a  practised  Examiner  as  to  the 
capabilities  of  a  candidate.  Of  course  In  some 
cases,  as  in  translation,  style  Is  definitely  con- 
sidered In  the  marking ;  but  in  other  subjects,  It 
can  scarcely  be  taken  account  of  question  by 
question,  though  It  makes  itself  felt  In  the  whole. 

The  practical  conclusion  would  therefore  be, 
that  when  the  Examiner  has  merely  to  decide 
on  the  fittest  candidate  for  the  purpose  In  view, 
he  may  act  freely  on  Impression,  translating 
this  Impression  into  marks.  If  he  thinks  fit,  In 
order  to  assist  his  memory  or  to  enable  him  to 
compare  his  results  with  those  of  other  Examiners ; 
but  when  he  is  examining  what  has  been  pre- 
pared by  the  pupil,  on  a  certain  understanding,  it 
is  more  important  to  keep  up  the  pupil's  con- 
fidence In  the  absolute  good  faith  maintained  in 
the  Examination  than  to  arrive  at  a  slightly 
more  accurate  result. 

The  following  course  Is  applicable  In  many 
Examinations  in  which  two  or  three  objects  are 
aimed  at  at  once;  as,  for  instance,  to  guide  the 
student's  reading  and  at  the  same  time  to  give 
consideration  to  extent  of  knowledge  and  to  fur- 
nish a  criterion  of  ability.  It  is,  to  distribute  three 
quarters  of  the  marks  assigned  to  the  jDaper 
among  the   questions,   and  to  reserve  the  other 


On  Marking  and  Classing.  485 

quarter  to  be  assigned  by  impression.  It  would 
be  well,  only  it  takes  time,  and  time  is,  in  heavy 
Examinations,  very  costly,  for  the  Examiner  first 
to  mark  all  the  papers  sent  up,  and  then  read  them 
over  a  second  time  and  assic^n  the  marks  due  to 
impression.  By  this  means  he  will  know  how  to 
pitch  his  expectations  before  he  begins  to  give 
the  marks  for  impression.  I  have  observed  that 
in  assigning  marks  to  a  particular  question,  it  is 
necessary  to  consider  the  time  required  for  answer- 
ing it ;  this  is  of  course  on  the  supposition  that 
a  limited  time  is  allowed  for  answerin"-  the  whole 

O 

paper. 

Something  must  be  said  on  this  subject  of 
time.  If  we  only  want  to  find  out  the  cleverest  man 
or  the  man  of  most  matured  knowledge,  we  may 
get  rid  of  this  disturbing  element  by  letting 
candidates  work  at  the  paper  as  long  as  they 
like.  But  in  educational  Examinations  the  time 
that  can  be  allowed  is  practically  limited  by 
external  arrangements,  as  so  many  j^apers  must 
be  set  within  so  many  days. 

The  Examiner  is  paid  in  proportion  to  the 
work  and  the  time,  and  during  many  Examina- 
tions pupils  are  being  maintained  away  from 
their  homes,  so  that  time  must  be  economised. 
Hence  the  time  allowed  for  an   Examination  is 


486  On  Marki7ig  and  Classing. 

often  scanty  compared  with  the  number  of  sub- 
jects comprised.  This  leads  to  setting  short  papers 
and  to  affordlnof  the  minimum  of  time  for  doine 
them.  Of  course  a  short  Examination  is  less 
effective  than  a  long  one :  it  gives  more  room  for 
luck.  When  an  important  subject  is  disposed  of 
in  a  single  paper,  the  questions  may  be  suitable 
or  unsuitable  for  a  particular  person,  or  a  candi- 
date may  be  a  little  unwell.  These  sources  of 
error  are  eliminated  in  a  long  Examination. 

Again,  when  scanty  time  is  allowed,  practice 
in  writing  out  becomes  so  important,  that  a 
schoolboy  is  sometimes  taken  off  his  regular  work 
for  some  weeks  before  an  Examination  in  order 
to  get  practice  and  dexterity  in  "  serving  up"  his 
knowledge  neatly  and  rapidly;  thus  by  allowing  too 
short  a  time  for  a  paper  we  put  those  who  are  not 
specially  trained  at  a  disadvantage.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  said  that  rapidity  and  readiness  are 
qualities  of  great  service  in  life,  and  that  they 
should  be  rewarded  as  much  as  any  others.  But 
this  argument  implies  a  comparing  of  things  not 
of  the  same  kind.  It  may  be  well  to  judge  of 
readiness,  if  the  candidates  know  they  are  to 
compete  in  a  display  of  this  quality  and  a  proper 
means  of  shewing  it  be  devised  ;  but  if  we  hurry 
a  student  we  can  not  tell  whether  he  can  think  or 


On  Marking  and  Classing.  487 

not,  and  we  cannot  say  what  comes  from  quick 
writing  and  what  from  superior  knowledge. 

A  pupil  who  knows  his  work  thoroughly  will 
be  able  to  answer  questions  much  more  readily 
than  one  who  has  to  hammer  out  his  replies.  This 
in  a  strictly  educational  Examination  justly  brings 
him  a  reward,  but  if  we  were  looking  for  the  ablest 
man  we  should  think  as  well  of  one  who  got  the 
same  questions  answered  in  four  hours  by  using 
his  brains  that  another  did  in  three  hours  by 
greater  help  from  his  memory. 

The  received  general  rule,  when  we  want 
to  judge  of  ability,  knowledge  and  diligence  all 
at  once — ^and  I  have  no  better  to  offer — is  that  the 
paper  should  not  be  longer  than  a  thoroughly  well- 
prepared  and  able  student  can  answer  in  the  time. 

If  the  paper  be  too  long  in  proportion  to  the 
time  allowed,  the  effect  is  the  same  as  if  separate 
candidates  had  separate  papers,  for  each  will  make 
his  own  choice  of  questions.  An  element  of  un- 
certainty is  hereby  introduced.  The  man  who 
knows  where  his  own  strength  lies,  and  who  can 
see  at  a  glance  what  he  can  do  and  what  he  can- 
not, and  can  invest  his  time  with  the  greatest 
judgment,  derives  an  advantage.  This,  it  may  be 
said,  he  fully  deserves,  but  there  is  a  difficulty 
in  setting  off  this  quality  against  superior  ingenuity 


488  On  Ma7'king  and  Classing. 

or  power  of  rendering  an  author  ;  sometimes  mere 
quickness  of  writing  may  produce  a  difference. 
I  have  known  long  and  exhaustive  papers  produce 
results  which  were  at  variance  with  the  rest  of  the 
Examination,  and  which  were  not  confirmed  by 
subsequent  trials.  Moreover,  a  paper  that  is  too 
long  enables  a  candidate  to  avoid  the  very  ques- 
tions that  we  most  depend  upon  for  judging  of  the 
correctness  of  his  apprehension  of  the  subject. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  jDaper  that  is  too  short 
may  answer  educational  purposes  well  enough,  but 
it  may  fail  to  discriminate  between  two  or  three 
men,  each  of  whom  will  answer  all  the  questions. 

A  Mathematical  Problem  paper  offers  a 
special  case.  No  one  is  expected  to  solve  all  the 
problems,  a  certain  choice  is  intentionally  offered. 
An  element  of  disturbance  is  hereby  introduced  ; 
when  there  are  two  or  three  such  papers,  the 
disturbances  may  neutralize  each  other;  but  a 
single  problem  paper  in  a  Mathematical  Exami- 
nation may  cause  an  erroneous  result.  The  harder 
the  problems  are,  the  more  mischief  the  paper 
may  do  ;  for,  if  no  one  can  solve  more  than  two  or 
three,  a  single  problem  will  be  very  important, 
and  a  candidate  may  hit  on  a  solution  by  some 
chance  thought.  If  the  problem  paper  be  very 
long,  it  denotes  a  vast  expenditure  of  thought  in 


On  ]\Iarking  and  Classing.  489 

the  making"  on  the  part  of  a  man  who  might 
have  been  doing  something  better,  and  it  adds 
to  the  uncertainty  in  a  still  greater  degree.  For 
a  candidate  can  hardly  spare  time  to  consider 
each  problem,  and  he  therefore  decides  hastily  as 
to  which  he  should  attack,  while  much  depends 
on  his  judgment  in  so  doing  :  twelve  problems 
for  tlircc  hours  is  the  common  rule.  Questions 
that  are  too  hard  may  cause  a  ruinous  loss  of 
time ;  the  Examiner  should  therefore  know  the 
general  calibre  of  the  candidates. 

Sometimes  an  Examiner  must  test  a  very 
wide  range  of  knowledge  by  a  single  paper;  the 
result  in  this  case  can  only  be  regarded  as  a 
rough  approximation,  but  the  plan  adopted  in 
some  Government  Examinations  under  these  cir- 
cumstances is  a  good  one,  viz.  to  subjoin  a  few 
questions  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  subject  and 
allow  any  of  them  to  be  substituted  for  any  of 
the  others.  Another  useful  plan  in  such  cases, 
especially  with  subjects  like  English  Literature  or 
Classical  Antiquities,  is  to  set  a  number  of  ques- 
tions, perhaps  a  dozen,  and  only  to  allow  the 
candidate  to  do  four  or  five  of  them.  This  leads 
him  to  possess  himself  of  certain  points  thoroughly, 
and  enables  him  to  shew  whether  he  has  crot 
beyond   the  outside  of  the  subject. 


490  On  Alarking  and  Classing. 

We  now  sujDpose  that  the  score  of  each  candi- 
date In  each  paper  is  settled,  and  we  arrive  at  the 
question,  How  are  these  particular  scores  to  be 
combined?  If  we  simply  add  them  together,  ex- 
perience shews  that  many-sided  mediocrity  will 
get  more  than  Its  deserts.  It  Is  with  learning  as 
with  the  boring  a  shaft  for  a  mine,  the  labour 
of  advancing,  and,  possibly,  also  the  value  of  the 
returns,  vary  with  the  square  of  the  depth  or 
even  In  a  hicrher  ratio.      Hence  the  reward  should 

o 

vary  In  the  same  proportion.  Unless  the  total  of 
the  marks  assigned  to  a  paper  be  made  inconveni- 
ently large,  It  will  be  difficult  to  mark  the  higher 
questions  adequately.  In  relation  to  the  lower  ones, 
without  so  reducing  the  marks  of  the  latter,  as 
to  leave  Insufficient  scope  for  marking  differ- 
ences In  the  answers.  The  result  Is  that  excel- 
lence Is  Insufficiently  rewarded,  and  this  leads 
candidates  to  read  a  single  subject  too  diffusely, 
and,  when  several  subjects  may  be  taken  in  at 
once,  to  enter  upon  too  many.  I  have  hinted  at 
a  plan  (p.  237)  of  squaring  the  marks,  which  In 
certain  cases  would  fairly  express  the  relative 
degrees  of  excellence ;  for  a  person  who  gets  half 
marks  Is  not  more  than  a  quarter  as  good  as  one 
who  gets  full  marks,  but  this  plan  would  be  trouble- 
some If  the  marks  were  numerically  high.     The 


On  Maj'king  and  Classing.  491 

simple  plan  adopted  in  the  Indian  Civil  Service 
Examinations,  though  not  continuous  in  its  opera- 
tion, is  far  easier  to  apply.  It  consists  in  de- 
ducting a  fixed  number  from  each  score  in  the 
particular  subjects,  and  adding  the  remainders 
thus  obtained  in  each  subject,  in  order  to  arrive 
at  the  ultimate  total  score  of  the  competitor.  The 
number  deducted  may  be  the  same  for  all  subjects, 
or  a  proportion  of  the  whole  number  allotted 
to  each  subject.  This  system  prevents  an  undue 
reward  being  given  to  smatterings,  but  it  does  not 
equally  well  answer  the  purpose  of  largely  reward- 
ino;'  hig"h  excellence. 

The  plan  would  be  more  complete  if  the  ex- 
cess of  each  score  above  half  marks,  if  such  there 
were,  were  added  to  it,  and  then  one  quarter  of 
the  whole  number  of  marks  assigned  to  the  paper 
were  deducted,  so  that  if  the  paper  gave  500 
marks,  we  should  have  the  following  results : 
A  obtains  full  marks  500  and  is  credited  with 

500  +  250-125  =  625, 
B  obtains  400  and  is  credited  with 

400+150-125  =  425, 
C  obtains  300  and  is  credited  with 

300  +  50-125  =  225, 
D  obtains  200  and  is  credited  with  200-  125  =  75, 
E  obtains  125  and  is  credited  with  125-125  =  0. 


492  On  Marking  and  Classing. 

This  plan  it  will  be  seen  would  enable  a  com- 
petitor to  get  more  marks  than  the  total  put  down 
for  the  subject,  but  as  all  the  subjects  would  be 
affected  in  the  same  way  their  relative  value  would 
be  unaltered. 

The  subjects  for  the  Mathematical  Tripos  at 
Cambridge  (see  p.  185)  are  now  distributed  into 
groups,  and  a  certain  number  of  marks  are  assigned 
to  each  group  ;  this  was  done  with  the  view  of 
inducing  students  to  read  a  few  branches  of 
Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  with  com- 
pleteness, instead  of  roving  over  a  large  surface 
and  selecting  the  portions  which  they  could  most 
easily  handle.  No  change,  however,  in  the  mode 
of  study  was  effected  by  this  step,  because  the 
old  course  continued  to  be  the  most  profitable ; 
people  found  a  little  of  many  things  more  re- 
munerative than  much  of  one  thing,  but  if  the 
marks  allotted  to  each  group  were  dealt  with 
by  some  mode,  similar  to  the  above,  candidates 
and  their  tutors  would  find  the  plan  of  reading, 
which  it  is  desired  to  encourage,  to  be  also  the 
most  remunerative  in  point  of  marks,  and  it  would 
be  generally  adopted. 

It  may  seem  degrading  to  have  so  often  to 
appeal  to  apparently  mercenary  considerations,  but 
as  I  have  before  said,  we  want  such  considerations 


On  Mar/cing  and  Classino;  493 

With,  youlks,  to  supply  the  place  of  the  motives  for 
professional  exertion  in  men  ;  a  boy  who  will  do 
nothing  at  school,  because  he  does  not  "see  the 
good  of  it,"  will  often  work  hard  enough  when 
he  sees  that  exertion  and  application  will  bring 
him  what  he  wants  to  obtain,  and  this  demand  for 
definite  returns  is  now  greater  than  ever  ;  the 
young  people  at  any  period  naturally  reproduce 
the  views  prevalent  at  the  time  among  their 
parents.  Grown  men  do  not  require  such  artificial 
stimulants,  because  duties  which  are  imperative 
supply  their  place  with  the  many,  while  the 
pursuit  of  knowledge,  or  of  some  object  which 
furnishes  the  interest  and  occupation  of  life,  does 
the  like  for  a  few.  This  brings  me  to  the  most 
important  part  of  this  chapter,  the  question  of  the 
conflicting  advantages  of  an  alphabetical  arrange- 
ment and  of  one  in  order  of  merit. 

We  are  here  regarding  Examinations  primarily 
as  modes  of  discovering  the  relative  qualifications 
of  certain  persons  for  some  purpose,  which  the 
Examiner  has  in  view,  or  on  which  the  public 
wants  to  have  means  of  judging.  The  more  there- 
fore that  Examinations  can  honestly  tell  us,  as 
to  such  relative  qualifications,  the  better  they 
effect  their  end.  If  we  have  little  confidence  in 
the   readings   of  our    instruments,   we   must   not 


494  ^^^  Markbig  aiid  Classing. 

pretend  to  register  very  nice  observations,  but 
we  may,  unless  there  are  other  reasons  to  the 
contrary,  publish  such  an  estimate  as  we  believe 
to  be  trustworthy  as  far  as  it  goes.  If  our  ob- 
servation is  only  true  to  minutes  w^e  must  not 
pretend  to  give  it  in  seconds  ;  but  there  is  no 
reason  why  we  should  confine  ourselves  to  hours. 

When  there  are  only  a  few  emoluments  or 
places  to  be  given  away,  we  are  forced  to  make 
a  selection.  Now  an  Examination  held  specially 
for  making  such  a  selection  generally  does  some 
educational  harm.  If,  then,  by  arranging  the  com- 
petitors in  educational  Examinations  like  those  for 
Honours  in  the  Universities,  in  as  close  an  order 
of  merit  as  we  can,  we  are  able  to  do  without 
special  Examinations;  we  are  so  far  doing  good 
service  to  education  by  adopting  this  mode  of 
arrangement,  unless  we  have  to  do  with  persons 
so  sensitive,  or  with  a  mode  of  preparation  so 
prone  to  produce  artificial  learning,  that  more 
would  be  lost  in  this  way  than  by  holding  special 
Examinations. 

At  Oxford  the  classes  are  arranged  alpha- 
betically, and,  looking  to  the  character  of  the 
studies  in  their  most  important  school,  I  do  not 
think  that  any  other  arrangement  could  be 
adopted ;    but   in    consequence    of  this   mode   of 


On  AIa7'klng  and  Classing,  495 

classification  it  is  necessary  to  hold  Examinations 
for  Fellowships  after  Degree,  a  plan  which  is 
open  to  objections  a  priori,  (see  p.  20)  and  of 
the  operation  of  which  at  Oxford  Mr  Sayce,  in 
the  pamphlet  above  quoted,  speaks  unfavourably. 

I  hold  that  it  is  desirable  to  use  our  edu- 
cational Examinations  as  means  of  disposing  of 
our  emoluments,  and  in  order  that  these  Exami- 
nations may  be  so  used,  their  results  should  tell 
us  as  much  as  the  Examiner  can  confidently  state 
about  the  candidates. 

When  the  subjects  of  Examination  are  not 
homogeneous,  or  when  they  comprise  matters  of 
taste  or  opinion,  or  when  an  extensive  subject 
has  to  be  dealt  with  in  an  insufficient  time,  then 
there  must  be  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  order 
of  merit.  The  more  free  the  Examination  is 
from  these  causes  of  incertitude,  the  more  closely 
may  we  place  the  names  in  such  an  order.  This 
incertitude  will  vary  for  each  subject  in  a  given 
Examination,  and  it  may  also  vary  from  special 
circumstances  affecting  the  whole  Examination ; 
the  more  multifarious  the  subjects  the  greater  it 
will  be.  It  is  measured  by  the  percentage  of  the 
marks  of  candidates  within  which  it  is  requisite 
to  "  bracket"  them  as  equal,  considering  each 
subject  by  itself.     To  determine  this  percentage 


49^  On  JSIarkiiig  and  Classing, 

practically,  we  should  require  to  have  the  same 
sets  of  answers  in  various  subjects,  marked  by 
different  Examiners:  we  should  find  that  in  cer- 
tain subjects  the  lists  nearly  coincided,  but  that 
in  others  they  varied  more  or  less,  and  we  might 
fix  our  percentage  accordingly. 

We  might  find,  for  instance,  that  if  we  "bracket- 
ed" in  Mathematics  all  those  who  are  within 
three  per  cent,  of  each  other,  the  same  list  would 
result  from  the  marks  of  each  set  of  Examiners,- 
but  that  in  the  case  of  Classical  translation  we 
should  have  to  bracket  those  whose  marks  were 
within  five  or  six  per  cent,  to  get  the  same  list 
from  both  sets ;  if  we  took  Classical  Composition 
the  percentage  required  would  be  higher.  This 
percentage  I  propose  to  call  the  index  of  inde- 
terminateness  for  the  subject  in  question.  When 
the  subjects  are  of  various  kinds,  or  when  all  the 
candidates  do  not  do  the  same  papers,  but  per- 
formances in  one  thing  have  to  be  set  off  against 
performances  in  another,  this  increases  the  index  of 
indeterniinateness  for  that  Examination.  For  in- 
stance, the  index  in  a  single  Mathematical  subject 
may  be  taken  at  two  per  cent,  which  was  the  rate 
formerly  fixed  in  the  Mathematical  Tripos.  Thus 
persons  scoring  5000  and  5099  would  have  been 
bracketed    equal,    but    one    who    obtained    5100 


On  Alar  king  and  Classing.  497 

would  have  escaped  being  bracketed.  But  since 
the  ranc^e  of  the  Examinations  has  been  extended 
so  that  many  candidates  take  different  selections 
of  subjects,  our  index  above  spoken  of  has  been 
increased,  and  candidates  are  now  bracketed  where 
the  difference  of  marks  is  within  three  per  cent. 

Mathematics  and  those  branches  of  Physics 
which  can  be  treated  mathematically  give  the 
most  definite  results.  Chemistry,  with  its  allied 
sciences,  would  perhaps  stand  next,  and  then 
Roman   Law. 

With  regard  to  Classics,  we  find  that  Ex- 
aminers usually  agree  pretty  well  about  transla- 
tion, but  that  prose  composition  affords  room  for 
some  difference  of  opinion,  and  verse  composition 
gives  much  more.  When  in  a  Classical  Exami- 
nation we  have  set  subjects,  together  with  His- 
tory, Philosophy,  and  Philology,  the  Examina- 
tion ceases  to  be  homogeneous.  Some  candidates 
may  pay  no  attention  to  one  of  these  branches, 
but  may  concentrate  their  strength  on  another, 
this  increases  the  indeterminateness  of  the  result ; 
and  the  degree  of  confidence  that  can  be  placed 
in  it  must  depend  on  the  system  of  mechanism 
adopted  for  combining  the  marks  (see  pp.  484 
and  491). 

When  several  subjects  arc  grouped  together 

L.  32 


498  0}i  Marking  and  Classing. 

which  are  dissimilar,  and  are  not  all  taken  up 
by  each  student,  as  in  Natural  Science,  great 
uncertainty  must  result.  A  student  may  do  very 
well  in  one  branch,  and  yet  so  poorly  in  others 
as  to  come  out  very  low  in  a  general  list.  But 
if  separate  lists  are  drawn  out  for  the  separate 
subjects,  the  credit  of  the  Examination  is  lessened, 
because  fewer  names  appear  in  each,  and  a  scanty 
list  carries  small  weight  with  the  public :  besides, 
the  public  is  bewildered  by  a  multiplicity  of  lists, 
and  is  found  to  pay  little  attention  to  Honours 
which  appear  in  this  form.  The  "index  of  in- 
determinateness"  might  be  so  high,  that  the 
"brackets"  would  be  large  enough  to  form  separate 
classes,  in  which  case  we  come  to  an  alphabetical 
arrangement  in  classes  of  moderate  size,  and  this 
may  be  the  closest  classification  which  the  case 
admits  of. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  note  by  "asterisks" 
those  who  are  distinguished  in  particular  branches, 
but  a  difficulty  occurs;  we  must  here  trust  a  single 
Examiner  :  there  may  be  a  want  of  uniformity  of 
view  as  to  what  constitutes  excellence.  The 
more  abstruse  the  subject,  the  more  necessary  it 
will  be  to  have  for  Examiners  persons  who  are 
rather  savants  than  teachers.  Such  persons  may 
not  understand  the  mode  in  which  a  pupil's  mind 


On  Markmg  and  Classing,  499 

acts,  as  an  Examiner  ought  to  do,  in  order  to 
mark  ability  and  distinguish  first-rate  work.  The 
mode  by  which  the  results  of  a  Natural  Science 
School  or  Tripos  can  be  best  used  for  the  award- 
ing of  College  Endowments,  appears  to  me  to  be 
to  allow  the  College  authorities  access  to  the 
actual  marks  obtained  by  the  candidates  :  this  is 
a  possible  expedient.  The  case  of  Moral  Science 
is  not  very  different.  The  subjects  comprised  are 
less  diverse,  and  are  more  commonly  studied  all 
together,  but  there  is  much  that  is  speculative, 
and  therefore  there  is  much  room  for  difference 
of  opinion  between  Examiners. 

Thus  far  we  have  spoken  of  a  relative  measure 
of  proficiency,  but  in  some  cases  we  want  an 
absolute  measure  as  well.  This  absolute  standard 
is  supplied  in  University  Examinations  by  dividing 
the  candidates  into  classes. 

Whether  we  adopt  an  alphabetical  arrange- 
ment or  in  order  of  merit  in  each  class,  the 
extent  of  the  class  must  be  determined  by  the 
examining  body  according  to  their  idea  of  what 
it  indicates.  In  the  Universities  there  is  an  old 
traditionary  idea  of  what  is  meant  by  the  First, 
Second,  and  Third  Classes  respectively,  and  by 
Wranglers,  Senior  Optimes,  and  Junior  Optimes. 
The    difficulty   of  draining  a  line  is    pro\'erbial, 


500  Oji  Marking  and  Classing. 


and  frequently  this  separation  into  classes  causes 
much  discussion.  We  find  every  shade  of  pro- 
ficiency and  ability,  just  as  we  find  that  plants  pass 
by  gradual  changes  from  the  lichens  to  the  most 
perfect  flowers;  but  just  as  at  certain  stages  nature 
is  most  prolific  of  genera  and  species,  so  we  find 
that  near  certain  standards  candidates  lie  thick 
together,  and  thus  a  first,  second,  and  third  class 
often  mark  roughly  certain  types  of  mind.  Never- 
theless the  gradation  from  one  of  these  groups  to 
another  is  continuous,  and  sometimes  there  is  no 
considerable  break  between  candidates  near  the 
place  where  the  line,  according  to  tradition,  ought 
to  be  drawn.  In  this  case  less  injustice  is  done 
by  a  system  in  order  of  merit  than  by  an  alpha- 
betical one,  because  the  difference  between  being 
last  in  the  first  class  and  first  in  the  second  is  not 
so  o;reat  as  that  between  a  first  class  and  a  second 
class  degree  when  all  those  in  each  class  are  sup- 
posed to  be  equal.  The  more  numerous  the 
classes,  the  greater  will  be  the  clanger  of  a  small 
difference  in  marks  causing  the  difference  of  a 
class  between  two  candidates. 

If  the  distinctions  drawn  are  unwarranted, 
if,  for  instance,  two  or  three  marks  make  the 
difference  of  a  place,  an  arrangement  in  order  of 
merit   is   not   defensible ;    but,    even  when   it  is 


On  Marking  and  Classing.  501 

warranted,  objection  is  taken  to  its  use,  as  leading 
to  over-anxiety,  and  "reading  for  a  place." 

Yotmg  people  however  need  close  gradations 
of  success ;  if  the  steps  are  far  apart  they  stag- 
nate somewhere,  they  cannot  love  knowledge  ''for 
its  own  sake"  till  they  know  what  knowledge  is. 
We  do  not  trust  entirely  to  duty  or  professional 
enthusiasm  in  the  case  of  grown-up  people,  but 
if  we  want  our  employes  to  act  with  zeal  and 
intelligence,  we  offer  them  opportunities  for  shew- 
ing intelligence  and  prospects  of  advancement. 
We  must  deal  with  young  people  in  the  same 
way. 

The  spirit  of  contest  goes  all  through  life.  It 
is  found  in  the  professions  and  in  politics,  and 
lies  at  the  bottom  of  all  our  recreations.  English 
boys  learn  to  love  contest  from  our  English 
games.  Happily  they  learn  from  them  too  that 
contest  may  be  quite  free  from  jealousy  and  per- 
sonal rivalry,  and  they  come  to  regard  fair  dealing 
as  the  air  they  breathe,  that  is,  not  as  anything  to 
be  prized  or  praised,  but  as  one  of  the  ordinary 
conditions  of  existence.  There  are  countries, 
and  perhaps  there  are  classes  among  ourselves, 
in  which  this  ready  spirit  of  give  and  take  is  not 
found,  and  then  objection  is  felt,  and  reasonably 
felt,  to  any  close  rivalry  among  students.      Many 


502  0)1  Marking  and  Classing. 

University  Examinations — our  Mathematical  Tri- 
pos at  Cambridge,  as  at  present  constituted,  for 
example — fulfil  a  double  purpose.  They  are  edu- 
cational Examinations,  and  also  Examinations  in 
advanced  knowledge.  So  far  as  they  are  educa- 
tional, classification  in  order  of  merit  is  quite  ap- 
plicable, but  so  far  as  they  represent  learning, 
which  they  do  as  far  as  relates  to  the  highest 
men,  a  less  precise  classification  would  be  better. 
While  receivinof  the  higher  knowledo^e  men  should 
be  free  from  the  disturbance  produced  by  the 
idea  of  contest.  If  we  divide  the  Examinations, 
as  I  propose,  we  get  rid  of  this  difficulty.  Our 
highest  candidates  are  now  and  then  pressed  a 
little  harder  than  is  good  for  them,  though  a  great 
deal  that  we  hear  on  this  point  is  exaggeration. 

We  now  come  to  the  objection  that  the  close- 
ness of  our  distinction  causes  over-anxiety  and 
over-work.  If  we  reckon  work  by  the  number  of 
hours  of  application,  we  should  say  that  the  read- 
ing men  of  the  present  generation  work  infinitely 
less  hard  than  those  of  the  preceding  one.  Bishop 
Blomfield  says,  that  he  read  twelve  hours  a  day  or 
more,  while  no  one  now  reads  more  than  eight  or 
nine.  It  is  not  the  highest  men  by  any  means 
who  read  the  greatest  number  of  hours,  or  who 
suffer  most  from  over-work.     Wc  arc  in  want  of 


On  Marking  and  Classing.  503 

precise  information  as  to  the  number  of  cases  in 
which  students  suffer  from  over-work.  I  beHeve 
myself  that  though  a  few  men  arc  temporarily 
wearied  at  the  end  of  term,  no  serious  evil  occurs. 
My  impression  is  that  young  persons  are  more 
careful  of  themselves,  and  that  they  understand 
managing  themselves  better  than  they  did.  In 
College  also  they  are  under  experienced  eyes, 
and  the  first  symptom  of  over-fag  is  observed. 

It  is,  however,  to  be  noted  that  brain-work 
depends  on  intensity  as  well  as  duration,  and  the 
work  of  our  time  demands  great  activity  of  mind. 
A  great  part  of  the  labour  in  old  time  was 
mechanical.  The  references  in  Bishop  Blomfield's 
time  had  to  be  made  to  the  original  works ;  now, 
the  passages  wanted  are  given  in  notes ;  proofs 
of  Mathematical  propositions  were  then  dictated 
in  lectures  or  copied  from  tutorial  MS.,  while 
at  present  all  that  is  wanted  is  found  in  the 
manuals.  Mathematical  processes  are  shorter,  so 
that  the  student  passes  more  rapidly  from  one 
conception  to  another:  more  thought  is  exercised 
in  less  time.  Moreover,  owing  to  the  over-great 
extent  of  matter  comprised  in  our  University 
Schools,  tutors  are  forced  to  go  at  a  gallop  to  get 
through  the  subjects.  Their  teaching  consists 
altogether  in   explaining  difficulties:    the  student 


504  On  Marking  and  Classing. 

goes  over  the  plain  ground  by  himself.  The 
tutor  administers  to  him  concentrated  nourish- 
ment, divested  of  all  which  gives  bulk:  this  is 
a  strain  on  the  mental  digestion,  and  is  terribly 
fagging  both  to  pupil  and  tutor.  In  each  lesson 
there  are  new  conceptions  to  be  conveyed,  and 
every  device  of  exposition  and  illustration  is  re- 
quired. The  remedy  is  two-fold ;  first,  to  reduce 
the  excessive  range  of  the  subjects;  secondly,  in  a 
moderate  degree  to  lengthen  slightly,  not  indeed 
the  formal  University  "terms,"  but  the  parts  of 
them  employed  in  instruction,  by  enforcing  the 
beginning  of  residence  in  all  the  Colleges  on  a 
certain  day,  and  making  each  term  contain  60 
clear  days.  People  would  be  less  exhausted  by 
a  few  days'  more  work  than  they  are  by  the 
tearing  hurry  of  the  present  plan^. 

^  The  Long  Vacation  at  Cambridge  is  the  time  when  the  greatest 
amount  of  healthy  work  is  done,  the  idlers  are  away;  about  500  or  600 
genuine  students,  and  80  or  100  of  those  engaged  in  teaching  and  in  main- 
taining discipline,  occupy  the  place  during  July  and  August.  The  Medical 
Faculty  too  continues  some  of  its  lectures.  The  best  work  of  the  year  is 
done  in  this  season  of  quiet,  and  Cambridge  is  then  truly  "a  seat  of  learn- 
ing and  a  place  of  education."  It  has  sometimes  been  suggested  to  interpose 
a  cominilsory  term  in  the  middle  of  the  Long  Vacation ;  that  is  to  say,  to 
oblige  the  idler  men  and  the  candidates  for  Ordinary  Degrees  to  reside 
along  with  the  studious  ones.  This  would  be  very  unwise.  The  Pass  men 
would  not  benefit,  for  the  term  would  be  much  what  the  end  of  the  Easter 
Term  now  is,  that  is  to  say,  it  would  be  broken  in  upon  by  boat  races  and 
cricket  matches,  and  worst  of  all  by  the  constant  intrusion  of  pleasure- 
seeking  relatives  and  visitors:  not  only  time  but  money  would  be  spent  in 
entertaining  them.     At  present  the  backward  Pass  men  often  go  to  their 


On  Mai'king  and  Classing.  505 

Another  cause  of  the  exhaustion  which  we 
sometimes  hear  of,  comes  from  the  pupil  having 
been,  in  sporting  phraseology,  "  run  off  his  legs," 
before  he  was  fully  grown.  What  with  Scholar- 
ships and  various  other  special  Examinations, 
the  schools  are  forced  to  let  the  education  of  a 
youth,  considered  in  its  largest  sense,  give  place 
to  his  prospects  of  distinction.  Thus  boys  have 
one  faculty  of  their  minds  forced,  at  an  over  early 
age,  into  undue  activity.  I  should  be  glad  to  get 
rid  of  this  specializing  in  schools,  and  see  young 
men  come  to  the  University  fairly  educated  all 
round.  At  present  we  have  a  few  well-trained 
candidates  for  Scholarships,  and  many  dunces. 

Evils  may  with  particular  temperaments  fol- 
low from  over-stimulation ;  such  temperaments 
are  not  only  found  among  the  ablest  students, 
whose  case  is  now  before  us,  but,  I  believe,  more 
commonly  among  the  feebler  men.  Sometimes 
a  Pass  man  reads  himself,  or  rather  worries  him- 
self, into  a  state  of  Incapacity.     With  such  men 

old  private  tutors  in  the  country  for  the  summer  (reading  parties  for  such 
men  are  not  to  be  recommended),  and  some  of  the  better  sort  go  and  learn 
French  or  German  on  the  Continent.  Independent,  continuous,  study  or 
writing  is  now  difiicult  enough;  it  is  prevented  not  only  by  teaching,  people 
must  lay  their  account  for  this,  but  by  the  distraction  caused  by  the  ad- 
ministrative business  carried  on  by  Syndicates,  and  by  the  debates  and 
agitation  attendant  on  legislation,  and  College  and  University  politics;  and 
if  the  Vacation  were  turned  into  a  prolongation  of  the  "  May  Term,"  the 
intellectual  life  of  the  University  would  be  well  nigh  extinguished. 


5o6  On  Marking  and  Classing. 

the  evil  is  constitutional,  and  would  probably 
display  itself  whenever  a  sudden  call  of  any  kind 
was  made  upon  them.  I  see  no  reason  for 
adapting  an  Examination  system  to  persons  thus 
morbidly  affected,  indeed  I  believe  this  over- 
anxious temperament  spreads  when  it  is  too 
much  attended  to.  There  is  also  a  class  of 
young  men  who  have  intellectual  tastes  and  some- 
times also  thoughtfulness,  but  who  fall  short  in 
energy,  and  robustness,  and  fortitude  of  mind. 
They  will  occupy  themselves  pleasurably  v/ith 
study,  but  are  wanting  in  the  volition  required 
for  an  effort.  These  are  apt  to  cry  out  against 
competitions  which  require  production  with  accu- 
racy and  completeness  ;  but  to  be  forced  to  aim 
at  this  is  just  what  such  persons  want.  They  need 
a  stronof  stimulus  to  brace  them  to  an  effort : 
they  are  of  the  type  of  the  men  who  go  through 
life  with  some  reputation  for  cleverness,  but  who 
have  nothing  to  shew  in  the  way  of  work  done  at 
the  end  of  it.  It  is  one  of  the  advantages  of  a 
competition,  that  it  reveals  to  us  something  about 
the  relative  strength  of  will  and  moral  courage  of 
the  candidates.  Moreover  it  pitches  the  whole 
tone  of  a  young  man's  character  in  a  higher  key, 
for  him  to  have  some  achievement,  or  some  feat 
of  endurance  and  self-command,  effected  in  early 


0)1  Marking  and  Classing.  507 

life,  to  turn  back  to.  When  he  has  proved  him- 
self equal  to  an  occasion  once,  he  Is  less  likely 
to  shrink  from  a  call  afterwards  (see  p.  36). 

As  to  the  arrangement,  then,  of  the  names  of 
candidates  In  the  lists  resultlnof  from  Examlna- 
tlons,  I  conclude  as  follows  : 

When  the  Examinations  are  In  the  higher 
parts  of  learning,  or  when,  as  In  Professional 
Examinations,  the  learner  means  to  make  use  of 
the  knowledge  under  review,  the  names  In  the 
classes  should  be  in  alphabetical  order.  The 
more  classes  the  candidates  are  divided  into,  the 
more  the  Examination  list  will  tell  us  about  the 
acquirements  of  an  individual ;  the  more  in  fact 
the  list  will  approximate  to  an  order  of  merit. 

In  Natural  and  Moral  Science,  and  when 
various  subjects  are  Included  (see  p.  497),  no  close 
determination  of  relative  merit  can  be  effected, 
so  that,  even  though  we  should  view  our  Exami- 
nation as  educational,  we  must  be  content  with 
an  alphabetical  arrangement  in  numerous  classes, 
or  what  comes  nearly  to  the  same  thing,  but  is 
sometimes  more  convenient,  with  an  arrangement 
'n  a  few  classes,  each  class  being  broken  up  into 
two  or  more  brackets. 

We  now  come  to  Examinations  used  to  assist 
•education.     These  we  want  to  make  available  as 


5o8  On  Marking  and  Classing. 

means  of  selection  in  order  to  avoid  havine  our 
education  warped,  by  youths  being  trained  for 
competitions  which  are  not  framed  in  the  in- 
terest of  education.  To  effect  this  the  results 
must  be  put  into  as  close  an  order  of  merit  as 
they  can  justly  be.  Moreover  for  purely  edu- 
cational purposes,  we  require  to  supply  motives 
of  exertion  to  the  student,  so  long,  but  so  long 
only,  as  the  student  is  of  an  age  to  be  regarded 
as  in  a  state  of  pupillage. 

A  list  in  order  of  merit  supplies  a  continuous 
stimulant  throughout.  If  a  prize  or  a  loss  of  pros- 
pects, dependent  on  a  small  difference,  be  of  too 
much  importance,  this  may  produce  a  feverish 
action.  In  order  to  obviate  this,  emoluments 
should  be  of  moderate  value,  and  a  lociis  poeiiiten- 
tiae  afforded  when  possible.  But  the  advantage 
of  a  continuous  stimulus  I  hold  to  counterbalance 
the  evils  in  most  cases  for  X\\^  yonng.  When  a  list 
is  broken  up  into  alphabetical  classes.  Its  action 
as  a  stimulus  is  intermittent,  and  it  only  operates 
np  to  the  standard  for  admission  to  the  first  class. 
A  student  says,  "  I  feel  sure  of  a  second  class, 
and  I  know  I  can  not  get  a  first."  He  then  reads 
In  a  languid  way,  and  the  more  so  from  reaction, 
because  until  lie  felt  sure  of  his  second  class  he 
was  as  much  acted  on  by  competition  as  though 


On  Marking  and  Classing.  509 

the  classification  were  in  order  of  merit.  Hence 
this  plan  causes  alternate  fits  of  excitement  and 
langour.  It  is  true  that  though  classes  are  alpha- 
betical, rumours  get  about.  The  successful  man 
hears  from  some  one  that  he  is  one  of  the  "  best 
first  classes"  in  his  year  :  but  this  kind  of  un- 
certain report  is  useless  for  selection  and  is  in 
all  ways  unwholesome.  To  prevent  the  higher 
men  stagnating  at  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the 
first  class,  some  future  competition,  perhaps  one 
for  Fellowships,  has  to  be  brought  into  sight. 

A  third  course  is  possible;  it  is  to  arrange 
the  first  class  alphabetically  or  in  two  brackets, 
and  the  others  in  order  of  merit.  This  may  be 
supported  on  the  ground  that  with  the  higher 
men  the  Examination  is  a  test  of  knowledge 
regarded  as  valuable  in  itself,  and  for  the  others 
a  test  of  scholastic  dilitrence.  A  small  first  class 
may  be  alphabetically  arranged  on  the  ground  of 
the  knowledofe  shewn  beinsf  that  of  the  savant  in 
a  certain  degree :  but  it  is  very  desirable  that  the 
lower  classes  should  be  arranged  in  order  of 
merit  as  much  as  possible ;  for  the  students 
who  fill  these  classes  need  all  the  stimulus  that 
can  be  applied,  and  are  not  likely  to  be  driven 
to  over-reading.  If  the  lower  classes  are  alpha- 
betically arranged  they  act  as  a  mere  pass  Exami- 


5IO  On  Markmg  and  Classing. 

nation,  and  the  aim  of  the  students  may  then  be  to 
do  as  Httle  as  possible  consistently  with  avoiding 
rejection.  The  third  class  in  the  Classical  Tripos 
at  Cambridge  was  at  one  time  classed  alpha- 
betically, and  the  effect  was  very  unsatisfactory. 

One  other  point  connected  with  close  classi- 
fication has  to  be  mentioned.  It  is  not  thought 
fair  to  class  one  who  has  had  four  years  of 
University  study  along  with  those  who  have 
had  only  three.  This  consideration  had  more 
force  formerly  than  it  has  now,  because  tutors 
are  found  in  many  places  who  can  bring  a  student 
forward  as  well  as  if  he  were  at  the  University. 
There  is  still,  however,  some  advantage  got  from 
long  residence,  so  that  a  person  might  sometimes 
improve  his  degree  by  waiting  for  another  year. 
This  at  Cambridge  is  not  allowed,  unless  evidence 
is  brought  to  shew  that  the  student  has  been  pre- 
vented from  reading  during  this  time  by  illness. 
He  may  then  get  permission  to  "  degrade  "  as  it  is 
technically  called.  Here  we  have  a  singular  instance 
of  the  importance  attached  to  the  obtaining  places 
as  compared  with  that  of  obtaining  education, 
for  the  student  is  discouraofed  from  readinof  what 
is  best  for  him,  and  forced  to  take  an  ordinary 
degree,  that  he  may  not  prejudice  others.  The 
rule  was  made   early  in  this  century.      A  more 


On  Marking  and  Classing.  5 1 1 

reasonable  limit  would  be  one  of  age,  so  that  a 
person  should  not  be  allowed  to  compete  for  a 
place  after  a  certain  time  of  life. 

At  Oxford  of  course  no  such  rule  exists,  as 
the  alphabetical  arrangement  renders  it  unneces- 
sary. The  object  of  the  rule  might  be  very 
easily  obtained  without  preventing  those  who 
have  passed  the  proper  age  or  standing  from  pre- 
senting themselves,  or  discouraging  them  from 
study.  Their  names  might  be  appended  to  the 
class  they  gain,  not  put  in  any  place,  but  alpha- 
betically in  a  list  at  the  end  of  the  Wranglers  or 
Senior  Optimes,  or  whatever  the  appropriate  class 
might  be.  I  allow  that  it  is  not  desirable  to 
induce  persons  to  decline  Examinations  at  the 
last  moment,  but  the  penalty  of  getting  no  place, 
but  only  a  class,  with  a  mark  indicating  that 
they  were  superannuated  for  competition  would 
meet  the  case. 

The  use  of  viva  voce  Examinations  must  not 
be  altogether  omitted,  although  they  are  spoken 
of  at  the  end  of  Chapter  iv.  It  is  difficult  to 
employ  them  on  a  large  scale,  because  they  are 
costly  in  time,  and  therefore  in  money. 

In  a  viva  voce  Examination  there  ought  to  be 
not  less  than  two  Examiners  present,  and  the 
Examination  of  each  candidate   in  an  important 


12  On  Marking  and  Classing. 


subject  should  last  at  least  twenty  minutes,  but 
the  number  of  candidates  in  almost  all  Examina- 
tions is  now  so  large  that  the  time  required  and 
the  consequent  expense  of  the  Examination  would 
be  very  considerable.  The  chief  use  of  viva  voce 
is  to  oblige  the  student  to  shew  the  state  of  his 
knowledge  ;  and  it  is  more  effective  for  finding 
out  unsoundness  and  latent  i^rnorance  than  for 
judging  between  the  ablest  men.  When  the  can- 
didates are  examined  with  a  view  to  some  prac- 
tical employment,  the  readiness  and  brightness 
of  the  candidate,  brought  out  by  viva  voce,  may 
properly  go  in  his  favour.  We  hear  much  of  the 
allowances  to  be  made  for  nervousness,  but  I  have 
seldom  known  men  of  real  knowledge  or  ability 
incapacitated  by  nervousness. 

In  pass  Examinations,  viva  voce  is  of  great 
use  ;  nothing  so  much  defeats  "cram."  If  unseen 
passages  in  classics  cannot  be  given,  viva  voce 
should  be  more  largely  employed,  but  I  fear  its 
expensiveness  will  interfere  with  its  coming  into 
commoner  use. 

I  will  take  this  opportunity  of  remarking  on 
the  expense  of  Examinations.  Those  which  are 
carried  on  in  the  Universities  are  defrayed  by  the 
Examinees  themselves  in  the  form  of  fees  to  the 
University  and,  owing  to  the  residence  of  Exa- 


On  Alar  king-  and  Classing.  513 

miners  in  the  University,  this  expense  is  com- 
paratively small.  When  candidates  have  to  go 
to  a  particular  place  for  Examination  the  ex- 
pense is  great,  and  increases  with  the  length  of 
the  Examination ;  hence  the  tendency  to  drop 
viva  voce,  and  otherwise  to  shorten  Examinations, 
which  diminishes  their  trustworthiness.  If  500 
candidates  attend  a  Government  Examination  in 
London,  they  may  have  to  spend  £10  each  in 
the  Examination  fee,  railway  fare,  lodging  and 
maintenance.  This  amounts  to  a  tax  of  £5000 
a  year  on  a  certain  class,  paid  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  enabling  the  patronage  to  be  fairly  dispensed : 
this  is  worth  consideration.  If  educational  Ex- 
aminations conducted  at  the  schools  could  be 
turned  to  account,  a  considerable  saving  might 
be  effected. 

I  need  say  but  a  few  words  on  the  marking 
and  classing  in  Pass  or  Qualifying  Examinations. 
It  is  usually  necessary  to  insist  on  a  pass  in  each 
subject  separately,  otherwise  candidates  may 
neglect  some  of  the  subjects.  It  is  also  desirable 
to  exclude  those  who  shew  great  ^'general  de- 
bility" throughout.  The  best  system  seems  to 
be  to  lay  down  a  miniminn  in  each  subject,  such 
as   two-fifths   of   the    full    marks,    and    a   higher 

standard,   perhaps   a  half  or  three-fifths,   for  the 

LI  ■> 


514  On  Marking  and  Classing. 

aggregate  ;  a  person  would  then  fail  altogether, 
who  fell  below  the  mark  In  a  single  subject  or  who 
did  not  obtain  the  hlofher  standard  in  his  asfijre- 
gate.  Sometimes  optional  subjects  are  introduced 
in  which  the  candidate  is  not  obliged  to  pass, 
but  which  will  yield  him  marks ;  these  are  some- 
times allowed  to  reckon  in  his  aggregate  so  as  to 
save  him  from  failure,  sometimes  not  so,  but  only 
to  raise  him  in  the  Lists. 

Pass  Examination  Lists,  It  may  be  observed, 
should  be  divided  into  Classes  In  order  to  give 
scope  for  gaining  a  little  credit,  "Pass  men": 
are  keen  for  such  distinctions,  and  we  ought  to 
take  advantage  of  this.  If  we  have  an  undivided 
alphabetical  List  the  Candidates  have  no  Induce- 
ment to  do  more  than  Is  required  for  passing. 
Indeed  the  man  who  narrowly  scrapes  through, 
thinks  that  he  has  done  better  for  himself  than 
other  people,  because  he  has  attained  what  he 
wanted  at  less  cost.  Pass  Examinations  with  a 
low  standard  are  very  injurious  to  education. 
When  a  notoriously  weak  man  passes,  his  class- 
fellows  lose  respect  for  the  Examination  ;  and  if 
reports  circulate  that  A.  or  B.  has  been  let 
through  on  answering  a  small  portion  of  the 
paper,  the  standard  of  preparation  immediately 
falls. 


Oil  Marking  and  Classing.  5  1 5 

Pass  Examinations  have  two  leading  objects, 
(i)  to  sift  out  incapacity,  {2)  to  provide  an  edu- 
cational course  for  persons  of  moderate  ability  : 
such  persons  are  so  numerous  that  their  case  de- 
mands great  attention.  Examinations  which  are 
preliminary  to  professional  courses  are  supposed 
to  aim  at  object  (i)  and  also  to  ensure  some  sort 
of  liberal  education,  but  they  are  commonly  too 
low  to  effect  these  purposes. 

In  a  University  course  for  an  Ordinary  Degree 
the  chief  object  is  mental  discipline.  Many  youths 
on  coming  to  College  have  little  use  of  any  facul- 
ties but  the  verbal  memory  ;  often  they  have  great 
difficulty  in  concentrating  attention,  and  much  time 
is  taken  up  in  getting  their  brains  into  working 
order. 

Subjects  must  therefore  be  chosen,  not  for 
their  value  as  acquirements,  but  for  their  aptitude 
for  forcing  the  pupil  to  do  something  else  than 
learn  by  heart.  The  form  of  the  subject,  too, 
must  be  such  that  it  can  be  given,  a  portion  at  a 
time,  and  that  the  teacher  can  see  whether  the 
pupil  has  really  done  his  part.  Since  we  want  to 
give  a  habit,  the  work  will  take  time ;  for  nearly 
the  whole  good  got  by  a  Pass  man  seems  to 
come  in  his  third  year. 

We  want  our  sul)jccts  then  to  occupy  a  certain 


5i6  On  Marking  and  Classing. 

time,  and  we  desire  that  they  should  be  read 
steadily  throughout  this  time,  and  not  carried 
through  by  a  rush  at  the  last.  This  is  notoriously 
very  hard  to  effect.  One  difficulty  is  to  oblige 
the  student  to  read  the  whole  of  the  book  that  is 
given.  If  he  can  get  through  with  two-fifths  of 
the  marks  he  may  think  that  he  need  only  read 
half  the  book.  If  the  subjects  depend  on  con- 
secutive reasoning,  like  Mathematics  or  Political 
Economy,  our  object  may  be  effected  by  letting  it 
be  understood  that  the  latter  parts  of  the  book 
will  yield  the  most  marks,  for  the  student  must 
read  the  earlier  parts  in  order  to  understand  the 
latter ;  but  if  the  subject  does  not  proceed  by 
steps  this  cannot  be  done. 

The  German  plan  is  to  set  only  one  question 
or  passage :  but  the  Pass  students,  though  they 
may  be  twenty  years  old,  are  still  at  the  Gymna- 
sium, where  they  are  forced  to  read  the  complete 
works  :  if  youths  were  left  to  themselves,  it  is  to 
be  feared  that  they  would  read  only  "likely  parts," 
and  trust  to  fortune.  If  we  obliofe  students  to 
pass  separately  in  small  jDortions  of  their  work — 
each  book,  for  instance,  of  Euclid,  or  of  their 
classical  author,  we  overwhelm  them  with  worry, 
and  drive  them  to  private  tutors,  to  see  that 
they   know   their   books    ''all    round."       Perhaps 


Oil  Maj'king  and  Classing.  517; 

the  best  jDlaii  is,  to  have  frequent  Examina- 
tions with  short  subjects,  and  a  more  compre- 
hensive one,  oathering-  up  the  principal  matters, 
at  the  end  of  the  course.  In  fact,  for  the  Pass 
men  the  criterion  Hes,  not  in  their  passing  a 
particular  Examination,  but  in  their  completing  a 
course.  The  test  is  rather  moral  than  intellectual, 
it  is  one  of  conduct,  it  turns  on  their  having  been 
able  to  get  their  work  done  by  stated  times  when 
they  were  left  to  tJiemselves  to  do  it.  The  value 
of  the  B.A.  depends  on  this  last  condition.  A 
boy  at  home  or  at  school  can  be  put  through  all 
the  Pass  University  Examinations,  but  is  not  a 
bit  the  more  a  University  student — his  tastes, 
propensities  and  will,  have  not  had  room  to  grow. 
The  essence  of  University  life  is  free  scope  for 
individual  development.  The  actual  Examina- 
tions are  of  secondary  importance,  they  are  of 
use  as  shewinof  that  the  man  has  done  what  he 
had  to  do  in  one  condition  of  life,  and  may  there- 
fore be  expected  to  do  it  in  another.  A  student 
at  a  tutor's  may  be  forced  through  all  the  Ex- 
aminations of  a  course  in  a  lump,  but  this  repre- 
sents no  education  at  all.  All  the  sides  of  his 
mind  but  one  are  left  blank.  All  his  energies  have 
been  given  to  this  special  preparation.  He  may 
have  learnt  as   well  as   he    could    have   done  at 


5i8  On  Alarking  and  Classing. 

College,  but  he  has  done  nothing  else.  His  life  has 
remained  folded  up,  he  has  been  absorbed  in  a 
master  object,  his  time  has  been  ruled  by  others  ; 
so  when  the  germ  at  last  breaks  the  husk,  there 
is  no  knowing  how  it  may  turn  out.  With  the 
University  Pass  man  the  Examinations  are  only 
among  the  incidents  of  three  years  of  growing  life  ; 
a  nature  of  his  own  has  burst  out,  he  has  chosen 
friends  for  himself;  his  character,  good  or  bad,  has 
taken  shape,  and  people  can  now  judge  fairly  what 
he  is  worth.  Sometimes  a  student  after  some 
failures  leaves  the  University  and  works  up  the 
subjects  in  the  country  with  a  tutor.  He  then 
passes  :  but  this  passing  is  of  no  real  value.  He 
has  failed  from  weakness  of  character,  and  this  weak- 
ness, for  all  we  know,  continues.  For  a  man  to 
order  his  own  time,  to  resist  temptations,  to  keep 
punctually  to  his  College  engagements,  and  j)ass 
all  his  Examinations,  moderate  as  they  are,  at 
proper  intervals  throughout  three  years,  when 
living  in  a  state  of  great  freedom,  is  something 
to  his  credit ;  but  that  he  should  have  been  able 
to  get  up  a  certain  amount  of  matter  with  a 
tutor  always  at  hand,  and  no  temptation  or  con- 
flicting interest  near,  shows  only  that  he  has  some 
little  power  of  acquiring. 


APPENDIX    A. 


I  THINK  it  will  be  useful  to  give  some  Extracts  from  that  part 
of  the  Third  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Scientific 
Instruction  and  the  Advancement  of  Science  which  refers  to 
Fellowships  at  the  Universities,  and  I  shall  add  a  few  notes. 
Some  readers  will  require  to  be  made  acquainted  with  the 
principal  differences  in  the  circumstances  under  which  Fel- 
lowships are  acquired  and  held  at  Oxford  and  at  Cambridge. 

At  Oxford  the  commonest  mode  of  electing  is  to  hold  an 
open  Examination,  generally  conducted  by  the  College  au- 
thorities or  by  Examiners  engaged  by  them.  In  many  cases 
it  is  made  a  necessary  qualification  for  a  Candidate  that  he 
should  have  obtained  a  First  Class  in  one  of  the  Honour 
Schools. 

At  Cambridge  there  is  an  Examination  at  Trinity  College, 
open  to  all  members  of  the  College,  and  in  certain  cases  open 
to  the  University.  At  other  Colleges  the  University  Examina- 
tions and  Prizes  are  taken  as  tests  of  competency. 

Each  Society  may,  however,  satisfy  themselves  as  to  the 
(lualification  of  a  person  by  his  performances  in  science  or 
literature,  or  by  a  special  Examination  if  they  think  fit,  as  has 
been  done  for  persons  who  have  been  ill  at  the  time  of  the  Uni- 
versity Examinations.  The  desire  to  avoid  jobbery  has  led  the 
Colleges  to  cling  rather  closely  to  the  published  decisions  of 
the  University  Examinations ;  but  there  is  not,  in  any  case 
that  I  know  of,  as  Undergraduates  sometimes  suppose,  a  "hard 
and  fast"  line  as  to  what  constitutes  a  Fellowship  Degree. 


520  Appendix  A. 


After  stating  these  differences  in  the  modes  of  election,  the 
Commissioners  observe  as  follows  : 

164.  "This  last  remark  leads  us  on  to  another  important 
difference  between  the  two  Universities.  At  Oxford  the  Fel- 
lowships of  each  College  are  filled  up  in  accordance  with  the 
results  of  a  competitive  Examination  held  by  the  College,  but 
open  (when  the  Fellowship  is  subject  to  no  clerical  restriction) 
to  all  members  of  the  University  who  have  passed  the  Exa- 
minations required  for  the  degree  of  Bachelors  of  Arts,  and  in 
many  cases  open  also  to  all  Graduates  of  any  University  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  At  Cambridge,  on  the  other  hand,  those 
Colleges  which  award  their  Fellowships  according  to  the  re- 
sult of  a  Fellowship  Examination,  open  the  Examination,  as  a 
rule,  only  to  members  of  the  College,  though  the  Statutes  give 
power  to  the  Governing  Body,  on  any  occasion  when  they 
think  fit,  to  throw  open  the  Examination  to  members  of  the 
University.  At  the  smaller  Colleges  it  is  generally  understood 
that  the  electors  look  in  the  first  instance  to  members  of  their 
own  College ;  and  in  case  there  be  no  candidate  of  sufficient 
merit,  or  the  needs  of  the  College  require  a  Fellow  having 
some  special  qualifications  not  found  among  the  otherwise 
eligible  members  of  the  College  itself,  they  then  'go  out  of  Col- 
lege,' as  it  is  called,  that  is,  elect  to  the  Fellowship  a  member 
of  some  other  College. 

165.  "  At  Oxford,  where  the  Examinations  for  Degrees  are 
not  competitive,  it  would  be  difficult  to  suggest  any  mode  of 
electing  to  Fellowships  other  than  that  by  competitive  Exami- 
nation; but  at  Cambridge,  where  the  names  in  the  Honour  lists 
are  arranged  in  order  of  merit,  there  is  something  to  be  said  on 
both  sides  with  respect  to  the  desirableness  or  otherwise  of 
special  P'ellowship  Examinations.  On  the  one  hand,  the  wider 
study  which  such  a  system  demands,  enlarges  the  foundation 
which  lies  at  the  base  of  a  subsequent  career  of  professional 
activity  or  original  research,  as  the  case  may  be ;  and  means 
are  aftbrded  of  remedying  the  result  of  accidental  failure  in  a 
final  examination,  such  as  might  arise  from  temporary  illness 
or  other  similar  cause.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  urged  with 
great  force  that  by  the  time  a  man  has  taken  his  degree,  sup- 
jjosing  him  to  have  been  industrious  while  an  Undergraduate, 
he  has  had  enough  of  study  pursued  with  a  view  to  the  imme- 
diate production  of  his  knowledge  at  a  moment's  notice;  and 


Appendix  A.  521 


that  he  should  then  be  left  free  to  pursue  his  studies  in  a  more 
systematic  and  specialized  manner,  and  his  originality  should 
be  no  longer  cramped  by  preparation  for  an  impending  Exa- 
mination. We  attach  great  imjjortance  to  this  freedom  from 
the  immediate  pressure  of  Examination  at  such  a  stage  of  the 
student's  progress,  and  are  disposed  to  regard  the  advantages 
which  may  attend  the  holding  of  special  Fellowship  Examina- 
tions as  too  dearly  purchased  by  its  sacrifice.  But  whatever 
differences  may  exist  in  the  system  of  election  to  Fellowships 
in  the  two  Universities,  we  think  it  very  desirable  that  in  both 
of  them  alike  original  research  should  be  encouraged  by  taking 
into  account  any  evidence  of  power  in  this  direction  which  a 
candidate  for  a  Fellowship  is  able  to  give." 

There  is  a  difference  in  the  rules  at  the  two  Universities 
with  regard  to  the  celibacy  of  Fellows.  At  Oxford,  Fellows 
are  not  allowed  to  marry  excepting  when  the  Fellowship  is 
attached  to  some  important  office.  At  Cambridge  the  restric- 
tion to  celibacy  has  been  abolished  in  four  of  the  seventeen 
Colleges,  and  modified  in  some  others.  The  Commissioners 
consider  with  reason  that  celibacy  might  be  enforced  on  such 
of  the  Junior  Fellows  who  from  their  offices  must  reside  in 
College,  so  as  to  be  readily  accessible  to  students  and  to  pre- 
serve order.  I  should  attach  this  obligation  to  the  office,  and 
not  to  the  Fellowship. 

At  Oxford  the  Fellowships  are  commonly  held  until  va- 
cated by  marriage  or  the  acceptance  of  College  preferment ; 
and  at  Cambridge  most  of  the  clerical  ones  are  so  still,  but 
the  lay  Fellowships  are  usually  terminable.  Fellowships  may 
in  some  cases  be  held  for  an  additional  period  as  pensions 
for  a  term  of  College  work. 

I  have  given  the  above  extract  in  this  place,  because  some 
readers  may  first  want  to  know  how  it  is  that  persons  come  to 
be  Fellows  of  Colleges.  I  now  give  the  general  remarks  on 
the  subject  from  an  earlier  part  of  the  Report. 

139.  "The  following  are.  the  chief  purposes  to  which  in 
our  judgment  the  Fellowships  should  be  a])plied. 


522  Appendix  A. 


"  In  the  first  place  a  certain  but  not  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  Fellowships  will  be  always  required,  as  at  present,  for 
the  payment  of  the  persons  entrusted  with  the  management  of 
the  College  estates,  and  with  the  government  and  administra- 
tion of  the  Colleges  themselves. 

"  Secondly,  a  large  number  of  the  Fellowships  is  at  present 
employed,  and  probably  a  still  larger  number  ought  hereafter 
to  be  employed,  in  connexion  with  the  Instruction  given  in  the 
Colleges. 

"  Thirdly,  a  smaller,  but  still  a  considerable  number  of  Fel- 
lowships ought  to  be  employed  as  Terminable  Prize  Fellowships. 

"  Fourthly,  a  certain  number  of  Fellowships  ought,  as  we 
have  already  said,  to  be  united  with  Professorships  in  the  Uni- 
versity ;  the  University  Professor  becoming  ex  officio  a  Fellow 
of  the  College  and  a  member  of  its  Governing  Body. 

"  Lastly,  it  is,  in  our  opinion,  most  important  that  a  certain 
number  of  Fellowships  should  be  appropriated  to  the  Direct 
Promotion  of  Learning  and  Research  in  various  directions.  It 
has  been  objected  to  this  proposal  that  the  Fellowship  system, 
as  hitherto  administered,  has  not  shown  any  great  tendency  to 
encourage  Original  Research,  either  in  the  field  of  learning  or 
in  that  of  science ;  that,  when  an  ofiice  is  created  simply  and 
solely  with  the  view  of  giving  a  man  leisure  and  opportunity 
for  original  research,  there  is  always  the  appearance,  to  say  the 
least,  of  creating  a  sinecure ;  and  that  it  is  impossible,  as  Pro- 
fessor Jowett  has  said,  to  get  a  man  for  money  Avho  can  make 
a  discovery.  But,  though  you  cannot  get  a  man  for  money  to 
make  a  discovery,  you  may  enable  a  man  who  has  shown  a 
special  capacity  for  research  to  exert  his  powers ;  and  we  are 
of  opinion  that  unless  an  effort  is  made  to  do  this,  one  of  the 
great  purposes  for  which  learned  bodies,  such  as  the  Colleges, 
exist,  may  run  the  risk  of  being  whcl'.y  lost  sight  of  Scientific 
discoveries  rarely  bring  any  direct  profit  to  their  authors,  nor 
is  it  desirable  that  original  investigation  should  be  undertaken 
with  a  view  to  immediate  pecuniary  results.  'Research,'  as 
Lord  Salisbury  has  observed,  '  is  iniremunerative  :  it  is  jiighly 
'  desirable  for  the  community  that  it  should  be  pursued,  and, 
'  therefore,  the  community  must  be  content  that  funds  should 
'be  set  aside  to  be  given,  without  any  immediate  and  calcu- 
'  lable  return  in  work,  to  those  by  whom  the  research  is  to  be 
'  pursued.' 


Appendix  A.  52; 


"  It  may  be  that  properly  qualified  candidates  for  such 
scientific  offices  would  not  at  first  be  numerous,  but  we  believe 
that  eventually  a  considerable  number  of  Fellowships  might 
be  advantageously  devoted  to  the  encouragement  of  Original 
Research. 

140.  "We  think  that  such  Fellowships  as  might  be  expressly 
destined  for  the  advancement  of  Science  and  Learning  should 
only  be  conferred  on  men  who  by  their  successful  labours  have 
already  given  proof  of  their  earnest  desire,  and  of  their  ability 
to  promote  knowledge ;  and  we  believe  that  appointments, 
made  with  a  due  regard  to  this  principle,  would  be  abundantly 
justified  by  results.  A  man  who  has  once  acquired  the  habit 
of  original  scientific  work,  is  very  unlikely  ever  to  lose  it  ex- 
cepting through  a  total  failure  of  his  health  and  strength  ;  and 
even  if  it  occasionally  happened  that  a  Fellowship  awarded  on 
the  grounds  of  merit,  as  shown  in  original  research,  should 
only  contribute  to  the  comfort  of  the  declining  years  of  an 
eminent  man  of  science,  there  are  many  persons  who  would 
feel  that  it  could  not  have  been  better  expended  in  any  other 
way. 

141.  "  We  should  not  wish  to  attach  any  educational  duties 
properly  so  called  to  a  Fellowship  awarded  with  a  view  of 
encouraging  Original  Research  in  Science.  But  for  many 
reasons  we  should  think  it  desirable  that  the  holder  of  such 
a  Fellowship  should  be  expected  to  give  an  account,  from  time 
to  time,  in  the  form  of  public  discourses,  of  the  most  recent 
researches  in  his  own  department  of  science. 

142.  "  We  now  proceed  to  offer  some  suggestions  with  re- 
gard to  one  of  the  most  difiicult  questions  relating  to  the  Fellow- 
ships, the  Conditions  of  their  Tenure.  In  doing  so,  we  think 
it  desirable  to  treat  separately  the  cases  of  Fellowships  held  by 
those  who  aspire  to  make  their  way  in  the  outer  world,  and  by 
those  who  look  to  an  University  career. 

143.  "  In  the  case  of  the  former,  or  non-resident  class,  the 
tenure  of  the  Fellowship  should,  as  we  have  already  said,  be 
limited  to  a  term  of  years;  and  we  are  disposed  to  think  that 
a  term  of  seven  years  would  suffice  for  every  useful  purpose. 
In  the  case  of  such  terminable  Fellowships,  held  by  non- 
residents ;  the  restriction  of  celibacy  which,  originating  doubt- 
less in  the  celibacy  of  the  Clergy,  has  been  very  generally 


524  Appendix  A. 


retained  as  a  means  of  leading  to  a  more  rapid  succession,  be- 
comes unmeaning,  and  ought  we  think  to  be  removed. 

144.  "  The  most  important  use  of  the  latter,  or  resident 
class  of  Fellowships,  is  to  enable  the  Universities  to  retain  a 
large  staff  of  able  teachers  and  workers. 

145.  "  From  the  evidence  before  us  it  appears  that  the 
Colleges  find  some  difficulty  in  obtaining  efficient  tutors  and 
lecturers.  Professor  Jowett  observes,  '  We  have  always  a  great 
'  difficulty  about  teachers.  In  fact,  at  Oxford  the  whole  thing 
'  seems  to  require  to  be  re-constituted;  there  is  such  a  difficulty 
'  in  keeping  the  best  men  there,  and  they  stay  for  so  short  a 
'  time.  If  we  are  to  keep  men  as  teachers,  we  must  get  rid 
'■  of  the  condition  of  celibacy.' 

146.  "There  are  other  difficulties,  which  are  not  adverted  to 
by  Professor  Jowett  in  these  remarks,  besides  that  occasioned  by 
the  restriction  to  celibacy.  One  of  them  is  that  in  endeavour- 
ing to  obtain  teachers  not  only  do  the  Colleges,  to  a  certain 
extent,  bid  against  one  another,  but  each  College  bids  against 
itself  A  College  offers  a  distinguished  man,  shortly  after  he  has 
taken  his  degree,  an  income  say  of  ^^250  a  year  as  a  Fellow,  and 
of  ^^250  a  year  additional  as  a  Lecturer,  so  that,  in  fact,  the 
College  offers  him  ;^5oo  a  year  if  he  will  stay  and  be  a  teacher, 
but  at  the  same  moment  it  offers  him  ;^25o  a  year  even  if  he 
goes  away.  Under  these  circumstances  we  can  hardly  wonder 
that  the  inducements  offered  by  tutorships  and  lectureships 
are  not  sufficient  even  in  the  first  instance  to  command  the 
services  of  the  men  whom  it  would  be  most  desirable  to  retain; 
and  the  difficulty  is  greatly  increased  by  the  further  fact  that 
as  the  University  system  is  at  present  organised  the  teaching 
offices  in  the  Colleges  do  not  offer  any  very  inviting  prospect 
of  further  advancement. 

147.  "  A  man  who  accepts  a  Fellowship  and  a  Lectureship 
in  a  College  will  find  that  at  the  end  of  20  years  of  service 
he  is  much  less  fit  for  the  special  work  in  which  he  has  been 
engaged  than  he  was  when  he  began  it,  and  probably  he  will 
also  find  that  he  has  not  been  in  the  meantime  preparing  him- 
self for  any  other  occupation  for  which  he  would  be  more  suit- 
able, and  in  which  he  might  obtain  larger  emoluments.  In 
former  times,  when  the  connexion  between  Fellowships  and 
the  obligation  to  take  Holy  Orders  was  almost  universal,  the 
(lifficulty  which  is  here  referred  to  did  not  arise.     It  was  met 


Appendix  A.  525 


by  the  system  of  College  Livings.  It  was  then  the  most 
natural  thing  in  the  world  for  a  young  clergyman  to  devote 
himself  for  nine  or  ten  years  to  giving  instruction  in  Classics 
and  Theology,  and  if  work  of  this  kind  was  not  continued  too 
long,  it  was  generally  thought  to  form  no  bad  preparation  for 
the  duties  of  a  parish  priest.  But  at  the  present  time,  the  Fel- 
lowships are  very  largely  held  by  laymen,  and  there  appears, 
for  some  reason,  to  be  a  growing  disinclination  on  the  part  of 
the  men  who  now  engage  in  tuition  in  the  Colleges  to  take 
Holy  Orders.  Thus  the  layman  who  becomes  a  College  Tutor 
or  Lecturer  finds  himself  entirely  cut  off  from  every  other  pro- 
fession, and  dependent  exclusively  upon  that  of  teaching,  the 
great  prizes  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  Public  Schools 
and  not  in  the  Colleges,  inasmuch  as  the  Professorships  are  too 
few  in  number  to  offer  much  prospect  of  promotion  within  the 
University,  while  the  Headships  are  still  to  a  greater  extent 
restricted  to  clergymen.  It  is  not  surprising  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, that  there  is  a  widesi)read  feeling  in  the  Universi- 
ties that  the  tutorial  system  is  falling  into  a  state  of  disorgani- 
zation. It  is  felt  that  the  College  Tutorships  and  Lectureships 
do  not  lead  to  any  permanent  positions  in  the  end,  although 
they  are,  perhaps,  a  little  too  highly  paid  at  the  beginning,  if, 
at  least,  we  regard  the  Fellowship  as  part  payment  for  the 
work  done.  What  is  wanted  is  a  graduated  succession  of 
offices,  such  as  would  make  the  business  of  a  College  Tutor 
a  profession  which  an  able  and  distinguished  young  man  might 
embrace  without  imi)rudence. 

148.  "To  a  certain  extent  this  want  has  been  already  sup- 
plied, in  both  Universities,  by  the  increase  which  has  recently 
■taken  place  in  the  number  and  value  of  the  Professorships. 
But,  as  we  have  already  seen,  these  offices  are  still  so  {c\\,  and, 
in  some  cases,  so  poorly  endowed  as  to  ofter  little  inducement 
to  a  man  to  look  forward  to  an  University  career.  Further,  we 
do  not  think  that  an  University  office  is  in  every  case  the  most 
fitting  reward  for  a  man  who  has  shown  himself  eminently  use- 
ful in  College  work. 

149.  "  We  are,  therefore,  of  opinion  that  it  is  to  Offices 
within  the  Colleges  that  we  must  mainly  look  for  inducements 
to  able  and  useful  men  to  devote  themselves  to  College  work. 
We  think  that  one  who  has  proved  his  success  as  an  Educator, 
might  fitly  be  elected  to  a  Permanent  (or,  as  we  shall  here  call 


526  Appendix  A. 


it,  a  Senior)  Fellowship,  -which  should  be  free  from  the  restric- 
tion of  celibacy,  though  subject,  as  a  rule,  to  the  condition  of 
residence  in  the  University  and  of  readiness  to  take  some  part 
in  the  work  of  the  College  or  the  University. 

150.  "  A  Senior  Fellowship  would  also  (in  accordance  with 
the  recommendation  already  made)  be  fitly  conferred  on  the 
ground  of  services  rendered  to  Science  or  Learning  by  Original 
Research. 

151.  "  The  question  remains,  what  should  be  the  status  of 
a  resident  Fellow  who  aspires  to  a  Senior  Fellowship  ? 

152.  "An  advantage  attending  the  old  system  of  tenure 
undoubtedly  is,  that  while  it  does  not  offer  a  man  a  permanent 
provision  unless  he  looks  forward  to  leading  a  life  of  celibacy,  it 
yet  permits  him  to  apply  his  mind  to  any  course  of  study,  free 
from  all  care  as  to  his  immediate  future.  We  fear  that  the 
anxieties  attending  a  short  tenure  would  have  the  effect  of  dis- 
couraging men  from  engaging  in  Original  Research ;  and  even 
in  the  less  uncertain  career  of  Education,  w^e  fear  that  the 
prospect  of  election  to  a  Senior  Fellowship  would  be  so  uncer- 
tain that  unless  a  considerably  longer  tenure  Avere  allowed  to 
Probationary  (or,  as  we  will  now  call  them,  Junior)  Fellows 
than  would  suffice  for  non-residents  engaging  in  professions, 
the  University  would  be  drained  of  its  best  men. 

153.  "  On  the  other  hand,  if  there  were  no  counterbalancing 
advantages  in  a  non-resident  Fellowship,  we  fear  the  effect 
might  be  to  cause  men  to  linger  on  at  the  University  who 
would  do  better  to  engage  at  once  in  a  profession.  We  think, 
therefore,  it  might  be  advisable  for  the  individual  Colleges  to 
make  such  an  adjustment  between  the  advantages  of  the  two 
kinds  of  Fellowships  as  should  preserve  a  due  balance  in  their 
attractiveness. 

154.  "  The  Junior  Fellows  might  be  expected  to  reside  in 
College,  and  thereby  aid  in  preserving  the  discipline  of  the 
place.  Accordingly,  the  retention  of  a  Junior  Fellowship  might 
in  the  discretion  of  the  College  be  subject  to  the  restriction  of 
celibacy. 

155.  "  While  it  is  only  right  to  give  a  Junior  Fellow  ample 
time  for  exhibiting  his  ca])acity  for  an  University  career,  it 
seems  highly  desirable  to  allow  a  Fellow  who  had  preferred  the 
junior  to  the  non-resident  tenure,   but  who  afterwards  found 


Appe7idix  A.  527 

that  he  was  not  suited  for  University  Work  or  Original  Investi- 
gation, and  had  small  chance  of  promotion,  to  engage  without 
delay  in  some  promotion  independent  of  the  University.  We 
should,  therefore,  allow  a  Junior  Fellow  the  option  of  stepping 
on  to  the  non-resident  tenure,  in  which  case  the  same  propor- 
tion of  the  whole  time  of  tenure  of  a  non-resident  might  be 
allowed  to  him  as  remained  to  him  of  his  time  of  tenure  as  a 
junior.  The  option  of  a  newly-elected  Fellow  to  be  placed  on 
the  non-resident  tenure,  or  of  a  junior  to  transfer  himself  to 
the  non-resident  class,  should  be  limited  by  the  restriction  that 
there  be  at  least  a  certain  number  of  juniors,  so  as  to  preserve 
a  sufficient  staff  of  Fellows  resident  in  College. 

156.  "  The  questions  relating  to  the  tenure  of  Fellowships, 
which  we  have  now  discussed,  have  been  incidentally  brought 
under  our  notice  in  various  parts  of  the  evidence  which  we 
have  taken.  These  questions  are  also  raised  in  a  Memorial 
submitted  to  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  by  a  large  number 
of  influential  resident  members  of  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
a  copy  of  which  has  been  forwarded  to  us,  and  will  be  found 
in  the  Appendix  to  this  Report. 

157.  "  We  are  convinced  that  the  future  interests  of  Scientific 
Study  and  Research  at  the  two  Universities  must  of  necessity 
be  greatly  affected  by  any  changes  that  may  be  made  in  the 
tenure  of  the  Fellowships,  and,  consequently,  in  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  Governing  Bodies  of  the  Colleges.  But  as  we 
have  not  taken  a  complete  body  of  evidence  on  this  subject, 
and  as  we  consider  that  any  attempt  to  do  so  would  lead  us 
into  inquiries  beyond  the  scope  of  our  Commission,  we  shall 
abstain  from  offering  any  detailed  recommendations  with  regard 
to  these  important  cjuestions.  We  desire,  however,  to  express 
our  conviction  that  if  the  Colleges  are  to  become,  to  a  greater 
degree  than  in  times  past,  the  homes  of  men  distinguished  for 
Original  Research  in  Science,  provision  must  be  made  for 
attaching  such  men  in  a  permanent  manner  to  the  College 
Foundations,  and  for  rendering  them  })ermanent  menibers  of 
the  Governing  Bodies. 

158.  "  The  following  proposals  appear  to  us  to  sum  up  the 
results  of  the  preceding  discussion.  To  adapt  them  to  the 
case  of  some  of  the  smaller  foundations,  important  modifica- 
tions would  be  required ;  and,  even  in  the  case  of  the  larger 
Colleges,  we  should  wish  them  to  be  regarded  only  in  the  light 


528  Appendix  A. 


of  suggestions,  which  we  feel  to  Le  worthy  of  attention,  but  at 
the  same  time  to  be  by  no  means  free  from  objection. 

"  (i)  That  there  should  be  three  classes  of  Fellows,  which 
we  have  distinguished  as  Senior,  Junior,  and  Non-resident. 

"  (2)  That  the  Senior  Fellowships  should  be  permanent,  and 
free  from  the  restriction  of  celibacy,  but  subject,  as  a  general 
rule,  to  the  condition  of  residence  in  the  University  and  readi- 
ness to  take  some  part  in  the  work  of  the  College  or  University. 

"  (3)  That  the  elections  to  the  Seniority  should,  in  ordi- 
nary cases,  be  made  from  the  class  of  juniors,  but  should  not 
be  limited  to  that  class. 

"  (4)  That  the  Junior  Fellowships  should  be  tenable  for, 
say  fourteen  years,  and  should  be  subject  to  such  restrictions 
as  to  residence  in  College  and  duties  as  may  appear  desirable 
to  the  several  Colleges. 

"  (5)  That  the  Non-resident  Fellowships  should  be  tenable 
for  about  half  that  time,  free  from  all  restrictions. 

"  (6)  That  a  person  elected  to  an  Ordinary  (as  distin- 
guished from  a  Senior)  Fellowship  should  have  the  option  of 
being  placed  on  the  junior  or  non-resident  tenure,  and  that  a 
Junior  Fellow  should  at  any  time  be  at  liberty  to  place  him- 
self on  the  non-resident  tenure  (but  not  conversely),  with  a 
proportionate  allowance  for  the  unexpired  portion  of  his  time 
of  holding  his  Fellowship  as  Junior  Fellow  ;  provided  that  the 
number  of  Junior  Fellows  be  not  suffered  to  sink  below  a  cer- 
tain minimum. 

159.  "  The  effect  of  these  proposals  would  be  to  constitute 
in  each  College  a  seniority  of  a  very  permanent  kind,  because 
its  members  would  hold  their  places  for  life,  and  would  be 
free  from  the  restriction  of  celibacy.  Whatever  share  in  the 
government  of  the  College  it  miglit  be  thought  ])roper  to 
assign  to  the  holders  of  the  terminable  Junior  Fellowships,  it 
is  evident  that  the  influence  of  such  a  jiermanent  seniority 
would  be  very  great,  and  that  the  prosperity  of  the  College 
would  depend  in  great  measure  on  its  constitution.  According 
to  the  above  proposals  (taken  in  connexion  with  the  recom^ 
mendations  we  have  already  made),  the  seniorfty  in  each  Col- 
lege would  consist  (i)  of  University  Professors  officially  attached 
to  the  College ;  (ii)  of  persons  elected  for  eminent  services  to 
Learning  or  Science;  (3)  of  men  who  had  given  some  of  the 
best  years  of  their  lives  to  the  service  of  the  College,  and  had 


Appendix  A.  529, 

])roved  their  fitness  for  College  work.  It  would  l)e  for  the 
Universities  and  the  Colleges,  to  consider  whether  a  body  so 
constituted  would  be  in  all  respects  suitable  for  the  important 
functions  it  would  have  to  discharge.  In  particular,  it  would 
be  worthy  of  careful  consideration  whether  such  a  seniority 
should  be  allowed  to  appoint  its  own  members  by  co-oj^tation, 
or  whether  the  whole  body  of  Fellows  should  elect,  or  whether 
the  filling  up  of  vacancies  should  be  vested  in  some  authority 
external  to  the  College ;  or,  lastly,,  whether  some  course  inter- 
mediate between  these  several  modes  of  procedure  should  be 
adopted." 

The  suggestions  (in  Sect.  139)  agree  in  the  main  with  my  own 
views,  but  I  would  make  a  clearer  distinction  between  the  Fel- 
lowship which  gives  a  voice  in  the  government  of  the  College 
and  the  mere  prize  Fellowship,  which  I  have  called  a  "  Student- 
ship." The  holder  of  a  Studentship  might  of  course  be  em- 
ployed as  a  Lecturer  by  the  authority  at  the  head  of  the  Educa- 
tional department.  This  might  be  the  ]\Iaster  of  the  College  or 
a  Council,  but  he  should  be  simply  engaged  as  a  stipendiary. 
The  higher  officers  of  the  College  occupied  in  conducting  edu- 
cation or  maintaining  discipline  should,  I  conceive,  be  ex  officio 
members  of  the  Governing  Body. 

I  am  not  sanguine  of  a  harvest  of  great  achievements  from 
the  "endowment  of  research;"  but  the  University,  by  encou- 
raging undertakings  which  only  want  assiduity  and  intelligence, 
by  setting  afoot,  for  instance,  the  framing  of  Books  of  Reference 
in  various  departments  of  learning — a  point  in  which  we  are 
much  worse  provided  than  Germany — or  by  issuing  carefully- 
executed  editions  of  erudite  works,  might  keep  together  a  body 
of  literary  men  by  paying  for  results  with  only  moderate  retain- 
ing pensions.  An  inducement  to  exertion  in  some  special 
direction  must  be  held  out,  or  some  definite  employment  must 
be  provided.  A  person  who  has  no  motive  for  exertion  may, 
no  doubt,  study  for  his  own  pleasure,  but  this  is  another  thing 
from  prosecuting  work  that  the  world  will  be  the  better  for. 

L'  34 


530  Appendix  A. 

The  question  of  remuneration  has  become  a  most  im- 
portant one.  When  Fellows  of  Colleges  were  clergymen,  there 
were  few  careers  open  to  them,  and  the  current  pay  of  clerical 
work  afforded  a  standard  for  that  of  College  work ;  but  now  a 
young  man  of  high  degree  looks  to  the  large  prizes  to  be  ob- 
tained in  active  life  as  depicted  by  youthful  hopes. 

The  question  now,  is  not  "  What  is  a  sufficient  return  for  so 
much  work  ?"  but  "  On  what  terms  can  we  secure  the  services 
of  the  men  we  want?"  First-class  ability  of  all  kinds  is  in 
good  demand,  and  some  varieties  of  it  fetch  higher  prices  than 
others.  The  maintaining  of  discipline,  for  instance,  is  un- 
pleasant, and  it  requires  energy,  conscientiousness,  promptitude 
of  decision,  kindliness  and  judgment ;  but  those  who  possess 
these  qualities  allied  with  high  cultivation  are  suited  for  many 
high  positions.  Their  possessor  soon  finds  his  value.  Even  if 
he  would  himself  prefer  staying  at  the  University,  he  may  feel 
it  imperative  on  him  to  attend  to  the  wishes  and  interests  of 
his  family.  There  will  be  more  difficulty  in  keeping  the  Uni- 
versities well  provided  with  a  disciplinal  and  administrative 
staff  equal  to  their  increasing  needs,  than  in  attaching  to  them 
men  of  literary  or  scientific  pursuits. 

But  not  only  have  Colleges  now  to  go  into  the  open 
market  to  obtain  Lecturers,  but  they  really,  as  is  said  in  sec- 
tion 146,  raise  the  market  against  themselves;  for  by  giving 
large  annuities  free  from  duties  to  young  men,  they  enable  them 
to  take  pleasant  positions  of  moderate  profit  which  they  would 
not  otherwise  have  accepted.  Many  Fellows  of  Colleges  take 
school  work,  and  it  is  sometimes  urged  that  exceptional  privi- 
leges should  be  allowed  to  those  who  do  so,  as  being  engaged  in 
education.  But  the  funds  of  an  establishment  must  first  be 
applied  to  the  purposes  of  that  establishment.  If  they  may  be 
put  to  any  uses  that  are  beneficial,  they  may  be  dissipated 
by  being,  thereby,  spread  over  a  very  large  area.  If  a 
Fellow  of  a  College  is  not  a  better  man  for  the  purpose  of 


Appendix  A,  531 

assistant  master  than  the  school  could  othenvise  get  for  the 
pay  it  gives,  then  education  does  not  benefit  by  his  taking  the 
place;  and  if  he  is  better,  the  persons  who  benefit  are  the 
parents  of  the  boys.  Now  these  persons  in  the  case  of  the 
public  schools,  to  which  these  remarks  chiefly  api)ly,  are  the 
most  opulent  class  of  the  country. 

The  remarks  of  Sect.  147  are  most  just ;  the  concluding  sen- 
tences point  out  a  cause  of  discontent.  Since  the  Fellowship 
is  a  fixed  sum.  College  Lecturers  are  at  starting  rich  compared 
with  their  contemporaries,  but  the  ultimate  prospect  is  insuffi- 
cient. The  question  of  retiring  pensions  will  be  a  very  serious 
one.  The  change  from  a  clerical  to  a  lay  body  has  been  very 
costly.  The  College  livings  which  took  off  the  College  Tutors 
in  middle  life  answered  the  purpose  of  retirements,  but  now 
they  answer  this  purpose  only  in  a  few  cases.  College 
Tutors  who  find  themselves  fathers  of  families  will  not  retire 
when  they  have  ceased  to  be  effective,  unless  handsome  retire- 
ments are  provided.  The  same  difficulty  exists  in  the  case 
of  Professors  in  all  Universities,  and  also  in  the  Government 
Public  Offices,  and  I  think  that  the  scale  of  retiring  allowances 
in  use  in  these  last  may  be  found  serviceable  as  a  guide. 

The  difficulty  will  be  to  find  capital,  as  the  Colleges  have 
no  ready  money,  while  Examination  Halls,  Scientific  Work- 
shops, and  above  all,  buildings  for  the  reception  of  more 
students  are  much  needed.  Cambridge  at  present  is  over-full. 
The  prices  of  lodgings  are  too  high.  Students  coming  up  on 
short  notice  in  October  are  forced  to  go  into  undesirable  quar- 
ters, and  are  glad  to  get  a  room  at  all.  The  lodging-house 
keepers  have  the  upper  hand  of  the  Tutors.  This  is  a  great 
trouble  and  a  very  ancient  one.  Hostels,  we  find,  were  set  up 
in  the  earliest  days  -to  avoid  the  extortion  of  the  to7i<!ispeople. 
Probably  the  townspeople  got  no  more  than  a  fair  return  for 
what  they  gave.  In  every  to\\Ti  there  must  be  some  spare  ac- 
commodation, there  are  interstices,  as  it  were,  which  can  be 

34—2 


532  Appendix  A, 

occupied  -without  much  cost.  While  this  lasts,  lodgings  are 
cheap  in  a  University  town ;  but  afterwards  houses  are  built, 
not  because  the  fixed  town  population  wants  more  room, 
but  on  purpose  for  lodgings.  People  come  to  the  place 
to  make  a  living  by  keeping  lodging-houses.  Then  we  have 
a  sudden  rise  in  price,  because  the  whole  rent  of  the  house 
is  to  be  made  out  of  the  lodgings,  and  we  have  also  to  pay 
tvages  of  superintendence ;  the  landlords  have  to  be  main- 
tained, in  great  part  at  least,  by  the  profits.  At  Cambridge 
the  superintendence  is  difficult;  ma-ny  tradesmen  are  giving  up 
lodgers  as  not  being  worth  the  trouble;  restrictions  must  be 
imposed  in  order  to  see  that  students  keep  reasonable  hours, 
and  sanitary  regulations  as  to  water  supply,  &:c.  are  now 
being  enforced  under  the  charge  of  an  Inspector  appointed 
on  purpose.  All  this  costs  money;  and  as  the  lodgings  are  not 
occupied  more  than  seven  months — for  in  the  Long  Vacation 
all  the  students  come  in  to  the  Colleges — and  ground  is  limited, 
the  returns  will  not  be  good  enough  to  induce  more  building, 
unless  the  rents  be  very  high.  The  Licensing  Board  at- 
tempts to  prevent  the  rents  being  immoderate,  and,  as  a  fact, 
insufficient  building  of  lodgings,  compared  to  our  necessi- 
ties, takes  place.  Many  Colleges  have  still  room  to  build, 
some  are  engaged  in  building,  and  large  Hostels  may  be 
erected  on  a  joint-stock  principle;  but  without  extensive  build- 
ing the  increase  of  our  numbers  must  soon  stop.  The  large 
proportion  of  students  in  lodgings  is  beginning  to  be  found  a 
serious  inconvenience.  Considerable  additions  are  wanted  also 
for  the  Halls  and  Lecture-rooms  of  the  Colleges,  and,  if  the 
College  system  is  to  be  maintained  in  efficiency.  College  funds 
should  be  devoted  to  these  needs  before  creating  any  Pro- 
fessorships which  are  not  absolutely  needed. 

This  difiiculty  about  lodgings  is  not  confined  to  England  : 
P>erlin  from  the  high  price  of  lodgings  has  lost  a  large  number 
of  its  students,  who  have  gone  to  Leipzig  for  cheapness. 


Appendix  A.  533 

(Sect.  15S.)  I  think  that  the  two  classes  of  Fellows  here 
spoken  of  would  cause  complications.  I  would  have  it  made 
quite  clear  whether  a  man  gets  his  pay  as  a  prize  or  for  work 
done.     Much  difficulty  comes  from  the  two  being  confused. 

No  person,  whether  he  be  called  a  Student  or  Junior  Fel- 
low, should  be  in  a  position  to  consider  that  he  had  rights  to 
any  tutorial  office,  or  that  he  was  aggrieved  by  being  passed 
over.  The  supreme  educational  authority  should  be  as  free  in 
engaging  its  officers  as  is  the  Head  Master  of  a  school.  The 
superior  officers.  Tutors,  Deans,  and  Bursars,  should  be  ex 
officio  Fellows,  and  therefore  members  of  the  Governing  13ody, 
but  they  should  lay  down  this  position  with  their  ofiice,  unless 
they  were  transferred  into  non-official  Fellowships,  see  \>.  437, 
But  a  pensioned  official  would  not,  as  a  rule,  remain  a  Fellow, 
according  to  my  view. 

The  Seniority  described  in  section  159  would  consist  too 
exclusively  of  men  advanced  in  life  to  constitute  by  itself  a 
good  Governing  Body.  The  object  should  be  to  preserve  a  due 
proportion  of  old  and  young.  The  admission  of  the  College 
officers  into  this  "Seniority"  and  the  removal  of  those  who 
accepted  retirements  would  keep  it  on  a  level  with  the  general 
body  of  the  University  in  point  of  the  standing  of  its  members. 


APPENDIX   B. 


ON    FELLOWSHIPS   AS    "LADDERS. 


The  action  of  Fellowships  as  "ladders"  enabling  young 
men  to  enter  on  various  careers  hardly  comes  under  the 
notice  of  the  Scientific  Commission.  This  side  of  the  ques- 
tion has,  however,  a  great  interest  for  some  classes  of  the 
community.  Air  Henry  Sidgwick,  of  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, deals  with  this  topic  in  a  very  able  article,  headed 
"Idle  Fellowships,"  in  the  Contemporary  Review  of  April, 
1876.  I  must  refer  my  readers  especially  to  the  statistics 
there  given  as  to  the  lines  of  life  followed  by  the  non- 
resident Fellows  of  Colleges.  IMr  SidgAvick  points  out 
conclusively  that  Society  gets  no  return  for  subsidising  the 
Masters  of  School  Boarding-Houses,  School  Inspectors,  or 
those  who  are  engaged  in  other  practical  vocations.  The  Bar, 
he  observes,  is  the  Profession,  in  which  such  "Ladders" 
are  supposed  to  operate  most  advantageously.  A  few  cases 
in  which  striking  service  is  rendered  catch  the  eye  of 
the  public,  but  Mr  Sidgwick  is  not  inclined  to  believe  that 
the  great  men  who  are  instanced,  would  have  remained  in 
obscurity  if  a  Fellowship  had  not  come  to  their  aid ;  that 
by  College  help,  men,  not  of  marked  forensic  ability,  should 
get  called  to  the  Bar,  Mr  Sidgwick  rightly  regards  as  a  doubt- 
ful good  to  themselves  and  to  the  Profession,  He  allows  that 
it  is  desirable  to  have  the  best  ability  of  the  country  to  choose 


Appendix  B,  535 

from  in  selecting  the  Judges  of  the  Highest  Courts  and  the 
Law  Officers  of  the  Crown.  Mr  Sidg\vick  thinks  that  it  is 
rather  the  business  of  the  corporations  who  have  the  super- 
vision of  the  Bar,  to  draw  first-rate  talent  to  their  Profession  by 
offering  some  provision  at  starting  to  those  who  have  shewn 
evidence  of  superior  powers. 

The  connexion  of  the  English  Bar,  however,  with  the 
Universities  is  supported  by  a  strong  sentiment,  and  this 
sentiment  can  give  an  account  of  itself.  It  is  a  distinguishing 
feature  of  English  Society,  that  men  in  high  positions  are  so 
often  persons  of  great  general  cultivation.  Provision  might  be 
made  whereby  a  College,  with  the  consent  of  the  Visitor  or  of 
a  large  majority  of  the  Body,  could  extend  the  tenure  of  a 
Studentship  where  they  saw  unusual  promise  of  professional 
success,  or  even,  at  particular  Colleges,  such  promise  might,  in  a 
marked  case,  be  admitted  as  a  ground  of  election  to  one  of  the 
Terminable  Fellowships  spoken  of  in  p.  437. 

Mr  Sidgwick  pronounces  against  all  Prize  emoluments  ex- 
cept those  which  go  to  maintain  the  Student  during  his  course. 
I  agree  with  the  general  tenour  of  his  remarks  so  far  as  they 
apply  to  the  prospect  of  an  immediate  return  in  money  for 
the  highest  kinds  of  study;  these  ought  to  have  some  charm  of 
their  own  and  are  degraded  by  being  viewed  as  directly 
marketable  commodities.  But  some  criterion  must  be  found 
for  deciding  whether  these  attainments  are  possessed,  because 
the  fitness  of  persons  for  certain  posts  depends  on  these  attain- 
ments:  the  kind  of  Examination  spoken  of  in  p.  191,  which 
would  be  far  less  competitive  and  less  mechanical  than  those 
now  in  use,  might  serve  the  purpose.  Those  who  did  well  might 
obtain  Fellowships,  not  as  rewards  for  what  they  had  done  in 
Examinations,  but  as  places  given  them  because  they  are 
proved  competent  to  perform  the  duties.  But  though  in  this 
way  the  higher  literary  and  scientific  culture  may  lead  to 
employment  enough  to  provide  for  its  genuine  votaries,  yet 


:536  Appendix  B. 

this  is  not  the  case  with  that  kind  of  study  -which  results  only 
in  what  I  have  called  student  knoiolcdge,  see  pp.  353 — 358,  and 
it  will  be  rarely  that  young  men  of  21  or  22  can  attain  much 
more.  I  do  not,  then,  see  my  way  to  dispensing  with  some  com- 
pensation to  young  men  for  the  prolonged  education  drill,  as 
Mr  Sidg^vick  calls  it,  which  is  necessary,  both  for  laying  in  the 
Tequisite  scientific  apparatus,  and  for  fitting  the  mind  for 
thorough  and  accurate  investigation.  The  want  of  this  is 
often  apparent  even  in  men  of  great  ability,  whose  learning  has 
come  late.  Parents,  especially  those  of  the  class  whose  at- 
tention is  now  being  drawn  to  the  Universities,  and  also  youths 
themselves,  are  impatient  of  this  preparation.  A  youth  entering 
an  office  at  17,  may  find  himself  in  the  receipt  of  ;;^i2o  to 
;^i8o  a-year  when  he  is  22.  I  find  that  men  taking  a  business 
view  of  the  matter  expect  some  chance  of  direct  advantage, 
•equivalent  to  this  income,  to  follow  from  the  prolongation  of 
study. 

It  may  then  be  necessary  to  award,  not  Prize  Fellozvships, 
but  Prize  Studentships,  as  rewards  for  proficiency  in  the  educa^ 
tional  parts  of  the  course,  which  I  have  proposed  to  separate, 
whenever  it  is  possible,  from  the  higher  study  intended 
for  those  meaning  to  pursue  learning  as  an  occupation  for  life, 
pp.  407,  408.  In  the  case  of  those  who  proceed  to  these 
higher  subsequent  studies,  the  Studentships  Avould  actually 
support  the  learner  during  his  prolonged  course,  for  others 
they  would  serve  as  "Ladders,"  but  they  would  be  short  ones, 
and  less  costly  than  Fellowships;  they  might  require  a  little 
lengthening  to  afford  access  to  the  Bar,  but  would  lend 
effectual  assistance  for  admission  to  many  callings.  The  ex- 
pense of  entering  Professions  in  England  is  far  greater  than 
in  Germany.  It  costs  a  large  sum  to  "  article  "  a  youth  to  a 
Solicitor  or  a  Civil  Engineer,  and  a  heavy  stamp-duty  is  levied 
in  many  cases :  this  seems  to  me  an  objectionable  form  of 
tax.     To  remove  such  artificial  barrier  is  a  legitimate  form  of 


Appe7idix  B.  537 

giving  assistance  to  promising  youths,  and  unless  such  a 
removal  be  effected  by  external  aid,  the  "  Ladder "  system 
which  connects  the  lower  with  the  upper  strata,  stops  short 
of  the  tableland  on  tlie  top  of  the  cliff,  and  only  lands  the 
climber  on  a  narrow  strip. 

Considering  the  competition  of  Government  appointments 
obtainable  by  Examination,  of  openings  in  business,  of  colonial 
enterprise,  and  the  need  for  something  like  Fellowships  which 
has  been  felt  in  Germany,  where  scientific  and  literary  ap- 
pointments are  ten  times  as  many  as  in  England,  and  where 
the  patience  of  young  men  in  waiting  for  a  post  contrasts 
strongly  with  the  hurry  to  be  making  money  which  pre- 
vails around  us;  I  do  not  think  it  advisable  at  present,  at  any 
rate,  to  throw  aside  all  rewards  and  trust  to  the  love  of  learning 
and  the  respect  for  culture  for  keeping  up  the  standard  of  our 
Schools  and  Universities.  It  may  be  observed  that  it  will  be 
almost  impossible  for  any  modification  of  Prize  rewards  to 
be  made,  unless  by  some  central  authority  empowered  to  deal 
with  both  Universities  and  with  the  Colleges  in  each,  for  such 
modifications  must  be  made  on  some  general  system.  Our 
experience  shews  that  the  number  of  promising  students  at 
the  different  places  of  education  is  nearly  proportional  to  what 
each  has  to  give.  If  this  is  affected  the  distribution  of  such 
students  will  also  be  changed.  No  state  in  Europe  could 
disarm  by  itself,  and  each  would  keep  a  keen  eye  on  the  peace 
establishments  retained  by  its  neighbours.  Something  may 
recal  this  to  our  minds  when  reductions  in  Fellowships  and 
"  Open  Scholarships "  in  the  several  Colleges  of  the  two 
Universities  come  under  discussion. 


APPENDIX   C. 


NOTES    ON    PROFESSORIAL   TEACHING. 


The  working  of  what  is  called  the  Professorial  system  may 
soon  attract  attention,  and  I  therefore  append  some  rough 
notes  which  I  had  made  with  a  view  to  a  chapter  on  Public 
Teaching  in  relation  to  Examinations.    (See  Preface,  p.  viii.) 

The  Professorial  system,  as  it  is  called,  comprises  a  variety 
of  different  modes  of  teaching  which  have  only  this  in  com- 
mon, that  the  teachers  have  the  title  of  Professors.  It  is  dif- 
ficult to  determine  in  what  the  essence  of  the  system  lies. 
According  to  one  of  many  attempts  that  have  been  made  to 
lay  hold  of  such  a  differentia,  it  consists  in  the  "  teaching  by 
the  great  authorities  "  in  the  various  subjects. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  those  who 
have  the  title  of  Professor  are  always  superior  in  knowledge  to 
other  teachers  who  have  it  not.  Neither  are  there  many  Uni- 
versities in  which  the  chief  part  of  this  teaching  is  carried  on 
by  the  great  authorities  :  it  would  be  a  waste  of  power  if  it 
were  so ;  indeed  if  the  time  of  such  persons  were  spent  in 
teaching,  they  would  cease  to  be  tlie  great  authorities  in  their 
departments.  In  Germany  the  Privatdocenten  do  much  of 
the  lecturing,  and  still  more  of  the  closer  kind  of  instruction ; 
some  of  these  are  waiting  to  take  the  places  of  Professors. 
That  the  great   luminaries   should  have  a  voice  in  the 


Appendix  C.  539 

public  teaching  is  quite  clear.  They  should  exercise  some 
control  as  to  the  mode  in  which  a  subject  is  presented,  and 
take  care  that  the  latest  views  or  discoveries  are  duly  repre- 
sented ;  but  whether  they  should  themselves  be  the  teachers 
is  a  question.  The  duties  of  research  and  of  instruction  are 
each  enough  to  occupy  all  a  man's  thoughts  and  interests.  The 
savant,  to  keep  abreast  of  his  subject,  must  read  all  the  new 
works,  and  look  at  numberless  memoirs  and  scientific  papers. 
His  business  is  avant  tout  with  science ;  that  of  the  teacher  is 
with  his  pupils,  he  must  be  familiar  with  the  ways  in  which 
young  people's  minds  act,  and  the  difficulties  in  getting  the 
kind  of  action  wanted;  he  must  understand  how  to  keep 
interest  alive,  and  must  mistrust  professions  of  comprehension. 
Tlie  savant  and  teacher  are  now  and  then,  but  only  rarely, 
combined. 

As  science  extends,  and  education  becomes  more  directed 
to  the  forming  of  habits  of  mind,  the  more  requisite  will  it  be 
to  separate  the  functions  of  sava^it  and  of  teacher.  Lecturing,  in 
the  sense  of  delivering  a  discourse  ex  cathedra,  differs  from 
teaching  in  this,  that  it  only  contains  one  of  the  two  essential 
elements  of  instruction  :  these  are,  (i)  to  put  before  the  pupil 
what  it  is  desired  he  should  know;  (2)  to  see  that  he  has 
rightly  got  hold  of  what  has  been  given  him.  It  is  for  want  of 
this  second  element  that  what  is  called  the  Professorial  system, 
when  the  teaching  is  not  catechetical,  has  commonly  broken 
down,  whenever  the  knowledge  has  had  to  be  tested  by  Exami- 
nation or  in  any  other  way. 

The  non-catechetical  ex  cathedra  discourse  has  advantages 
for  particular  purposes;  it  partakes  of  the  nature  of  preaching, 
and  when  a  new  view  of  a  science  is  started,  it  is  an  effective 
means  of  kindling  enthusiasm  ;  it  introduces  the  personal  ele- 
ment more  effectively  than  a  book,  and  a  great  Lecturer  may 
produce  a  considerable  sensation ;  but  then  he  must  possess  a 
combination  of  qualities  which  is  likely  to  get  rarer  every  day. 


540  Appendix  C, 

He  must  be  first-rate  in  knowledge  of  the  matter  he  deals  with  : 
he  must  put  himself  in  relation  with  his  audience,  and  must 
understand  what  difficulties  they  are  likely  to  find,  a  point 
in  Avhich  the  savani  is  often  deficient;  finally,  he  must  be  a 
good  elocutionist.  When  a  branch  of  learning  has  passed  the 
Rhetorical  stage  and  its  principles  are  accepted  and  contained 
in  books,  then  the  Professor  must  either  dictate  a  ?!ew  book  or 
see  that  the  pupils  know  existing  ones,  or  take  an  intermediate 
course — commenting,  amending,  and  questioning.  Only  the 
first  plan  can  be  adopted  in  what  I  have  called  the  ex  calhcdra 
discourse,  in  contrast  to  the  catechetical  lecture  in  which  the 
pupils  are  questioned  and  which  is  only  a  higher  form  of 
class-teaching.    I  am  not  here  speaking  of  experimental  Lectures. 

Mathematical  Lecturers,  when  there  were  no  books,  dic- 
tated MS.  to  their  pupils,  and  German  students  now  take 
down  word  for  word  some  of  these  Lectures,  meaning  to  "  put 
it  all  in  "  to  the  ''  Programm  "  or  Dissertation  which  they  will 
one  day  have  to  write.  Such  dictation  is  not  teaching  at  all, 
and  is  superseded  by  the  multiplication  of  books. 

The  ex  cathedra  Professorial  Lecture,  which  is  like  the 
reading  of  a  Dissertation,  is  common  in  Germany.  Any 
number  of  persons  can  listen  to  it,  while  for  a  catechetical 
Lecture  the  class  must  be  limited.  In  the  Scotch  Universi- 
ties the  Lectures  of  the  Professors  are  often  catechetical, 
and  are  much  like  those  that  are  given  in  the  Colleges  of 
the  English  Universities,  and  in  the  Soninariuni  of  the 
German  Universities,  which  is  an  establishment  within  the 
University  for  those  who  want  to  be  prepared  for  the  Exami- 
nation for  the  Diploma  doccndi.  The  second  function,  that  of 
seeing  that  the  pupil  knozos  7uhat  has  been  given  him,  is  some- 
times performed  abroad  by  a  ripeliteiir,  who  examines  the 
class  in  what  it  has  received  from  the  Professor's  lips  a 
day  or  two  before.  A  catechetical  Lecturer  is  in  part  his  own 
ripctiteur;    but    Examinations   from   time  to  time  will  be  re- 


Appendix   C.  541 

quired  to  supplement  his  questioning.  A  hardworking  student 
may  do  this  work  for  himself,  he  may  rewrite  his  notes  fully, 
and  examine  himself  in  wliat  he  has  heard.  Some  persons 
find  the  listening  to  a  lecture  and  taking  notes  extremely 
exhausting :  those  who  have  been  used  to  learn  from  books 
feel  this  especially.  The  straining  to  catch  the  point,  the  dis- 
tress when  an  important  word  is  missed,  and  the  twofold  action 
of  the  mind  in  attending  and  abridging  at  the  same  time,  is 
to  them  very  distressing.  Listening  to  what  is  called  a  popular 
lecture,  without  having  to  give  an  account  of  it  afterwards,  is 
pleasant  enough. 

At  lectures  in  which  experiments,  or  specimens,  or  objects 
of  Art  are  exhibited,  the  student's  attention  is  kept  alive  by 
what  he  sees  or  does,  and  he  gets  from  the  lecture  the  illustra- 
tions which  he  could  not  get  in  any  other  way.  In  Natural  and 
Experimental  Science,  lecturing  must  always  be  the  principal 
mode  of  teaching;  and  where  the  necessary  apparatus  is 
costly,  or  particular  skill  is  required  for  experimenting,  the 
teaching  will  be  monopolized  by  the  Professor.  In  this 
way  certain  branches  of  learning  will  be  localised  in  Uni- 
versities. The  student  should  not  be  Yi\(txt\y  passive :  this  is 
avoided  where  the  Professor  translates  a  book,  also  in  Lectures 
broken  by  discussions,  a  useful  form  for  small  classes. 

The  student  wants,  however,  not  only  persons  who  shall 
communicate  portions  of  knowledge  and  afford  the  requisite 
appliances,  but  he  wants  co/ifinuoits  direction  in  the  way  of  stud}', 
and  is  much  supported  by  feeling  that  some  interest  is  taken 
in  him.  The  weak  point  of  German  teaching,  as  was  remarked 
to  me  by  a  Professor,  is,  that  there  is  no  one  to  direct  a  student 
as  to  what  Lectures  he  had  best  attend;  no  one  to  see  that 
he  knows  what  he  has  been  told ;  and  above  all,  no  one  to  act 
as  his  mentor,  or  who  is  called  on  to  care  for  him  personally 
in  any  degree ;  he  is  at  one  time  attending  one  Lecturer,  at 
another  time  another;  neither  of  them  knows  his  name,  or  what 


542  Appendix   C 

course  of  study  he  is  pursuing.  Our  College  system  can  supply 
this ;  the  Domestic  element  may  form  a  valuable  supplement 
to  the  teaching  given  in  the  courses  conducted  by  Professors 
and  Intercollegiate  Lecturers.  These  classes  of  teachers  now 
work  together,  and  furnish  satisfactory  courses  of  teaching  of  a 
high  order.  Each  College  should,  however,  provide  a  teacher 
to  take  general  charge  of  the  progress  of  its  pupils  in  each 
particular  branch,  whose  business  it  should  be  to  understand 
their  mental  constitution,  to  advise  them,  and  ascertain  how 
they  get  on.  The  Pass  men  of  course  must  be  wholly  in 
the  hands  of  the  College,  for  with  them  everything  depends 
on  personal  influence  and  on  their  feeling  that  the  teacher 
has  an  interest  in  them :  moreover,  ha  must  be  accessible,  so 
that  they  may  readily  bring  their  difficulties  to  him. 

The  Science  Commission  recommend  that  all  the  Profes- 
sors should  lecture,  but  they  cannot  provide  for  there  being  any- 
body to  listen  to  them.  Some  might  find  themselves  without  an 
audience,  and  yet  they  might  do  good  work  without  lecturing. 
If  a  Professor  were  to  call  together  the  Lecturers  in  his  branch 
of  study  once  or  twice  a  term,  and  inform  them  of  anything  of 
importance  done  in  his  branch  of  learning,  or  of  any  improve- 
ments in  modes  of  teaching  his  subject,  or  of  the  views  he 
wishes  to  see  enforced,  he  would  do  good  work.  The  actual 
teachers  are  too  much  taken  up  in  the  drudgery  of  their  daily 
business  to  look  flir  abroad ;  it  is  only  in  the  Vacations  that 
tliey  can  caixy  on  their  own  reading,  and  even  then  many  have 
pupils  or  Plxaminations  to  attend  to,  so  that  a  system  exclu- 
sively in  their  hands  would  be  apt  to  run  on  in  the  same 
lines.  Here  the  man  of  matured  learning,  with  leisure  secured 
for  study,  should  step  in. 

It  should  be  understood  when  a  Professor  is  appointed 
whether  he  is  intended  for  teaching,  or  for  superintendence  of 
studies  and  research.  It  would  be  well  to  have  different  names 
for  the  different  ofiiccs.     If  he  be  intended  to  be  a  teacher,  his 


Appendix   C.  543 

income  should  depend  in  some  degree  on  his  fees.  Where  we 
wish  a  man's  mental  interest  to  be,  there  his  pecuniary  interest 
should  lie  also.  The  Professors  and  all  endowed  Lecturers 
would,  I  conclude,  agreeably  to  the  recommendation  of  the 
Cambridge  Syndicate,  be  prohibited  from  taking  private  pupils, 
Otherwise  the  endowment  might  become  a  mere  subsidy  to 
a  private  tutor.  If  research  is  really  desired,  some  inducement 
must  be  held  out  to  the  Fellows  and  Professors  to  pursue  it 
The  University  might  be  enabled  to  grant  a  very  limited 
number  of  Professorships  Extraordinary  or  University  Fellow- 
ships, as,  in  fact,  good  service  Pensions,  accompanied  by 
an  Honorary  Degree.  The  prospect  of  these  would  have 
an  effect.  The  Colleges  have  in  a  measure  performed  this 
function  of  late  by  awarding  Fellowships  to  distinguished 
Professors. 

There  has  been  lately  a  movement  with  respect  to  the 
Candidates  for  the  Further  Examination  for  the  Indian  Civil 
Service.  It  is  thought  desirable  for  the  sake  of  social  advan- 
tages that  they  should  resort  to  a  University,  and  there  has 
been  talk  of  making  Professors  of  Indian  History  and  Indian 
Law  for  their  benefit,  but  few  Candidates  will  attend  Lectures 
of  a  high  order.  They  must  under  heavy  penalties  pass  an 
Examination  in  London  in  certain  languages,  and  portions  of 
Law,  History,  and  Political  Economy  from  specified  books  every 
six  months ;  and  if  they  have  time  to  spare  they  will  spend  it 
in  learning  the  additional  Oriental  languages,  which  bring  them 
a  higher  position  on  the  List  which  governs  their  Seniority  in 
the  Service.  What  they  want,  then,  is  not  extra  means  of  in- 
formation, but  some  one  to  see  that  they  know  what  they  are  set 
to  learn ;  this  was  done  by  those  who  prepared  them  in  Lon- 
don, and  they  will  not  accept  anything  less  immediately  suited 
to  their  wants.  So  we  may  set  up  a  whole  staff  of  Professors 
in  the  University,  but  if  one  or  two  tutors  make  themselves 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  requirements  of  the  Examina- 


544  Appendix   C. 

tion,  and  supply  just  what  is  needed,  the  greater  part  of  the 
teaching  will  fall  into  their  hands. 

When  a  system  of  Examination  is  givcn^  it  contains  impli- 
citly, rolled  up  in  itself,  the  system  of  instruction  that  belongs 
to  it.  The  case  just  mentioned  illustrates  this  truth,  for  the 
Examination  in  question  is  most  precisely  laid  down,  and  a 
corresponding  system  of  instruction  has  established  itself. 

No  doubt  the  Candidates  will  find  all  they  require  pro- 
vided for  them  at  both  Universities,  whether  the  teachers 
be  called  Professors  or  not.  Many,  indeed,  have  already  done 
so  in  the  course  of  the  last  twenty  years ;  and  if  the  number 
of  those  who  resort  to  the  Universities  be  increased  by  the 
recent  regulations,  arrangements  for  their  instruction  will  be 
more  easily  made.  I  have  touched  on  this  point  in  the  Preface, 
p,  vi. 


CA.MlilUDGIi:    TRINTEU  liY   C.  J.    CLAY,    M.A,   AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS. 


March,  1877. 
PUBLISHED   BY 

MESSRS.  DEIGIITON,  BELL,  AND  CO. 

CAMBPJDGE, 
Sgcntg  to  i\)t  Cllnifaci-sitg, 

AND 

GEOEGE    BELL   AND    SONS, 

YORK  STREET,  COVENT  GARDEN,  LONDON. 


Cambntrge  ^d)ool  antr  College 
Ctjrt  33ooU£», 

A  Series  of  Elementary  Treatises  adapted  for  the  Use  of 
Students  in  the  Universities,  Schools,  and  Candidates 
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Foolscap  8i'o. 

Elements  of  Algebra.  By  the  Eev.  C.  Elsee, 
M.A.,  Mathematical  Master  at  Rugby.  Fourth  Edi- 
tion.    4s. 

Arithmetic.     By  tlie  Eev.  C.  Elsee,  M.A.,  late 

Fellow  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  ]\Iathciuatical 
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Arithmetic  for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Colleges. 
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Arithmetic.  A  Progressive  Course  of  Examples 
in  Arithmetic,  with  Answers.  By  J.  "Watson,  M.A., 
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Third  Edition,     is.  6d. 

Plane  Astronomy.  For  the  Use  of  Colleges  and 
Schools.  By  P.  T.  Main,  M.A.,  Eellow  of  St  John's 
College.     Second  Edition.     4s. 

[Continued, 


2    SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE  TEXT  BOOKS— C&ntintted. 

Conic  Sections,  treated  Geometrically.  By  W. 
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Edition.     4s. 

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Pembroke  College.     With  numerous  Examples.     5s. 

Newton's  Principia:  first  three  Sections  with  Ap- 
pendix, and  the  Ninth  and  Eleventh  Sections.  By  J.  H. 
Evans,  M.A.,  St  John's  College.  The  Fifth  Edition 
edited  by  P.  T.  Main,  Fellow  of  St  John's  College.    4s. 

Geometrical   Optics.      By  W.  S.  Aldis,  M.A., 

Trinity  College.     35.  61!?. 

Statics.    By  H.  Goodwin,  D.D.,  Bp.  of  Carlisle. 

Second  Edition.     3s. 

Elementary  Trigonometry.     By  T.  P.   Hudson, 

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Companion  to  the  Greek  Testament.    Designed 

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Forms  in  Schools.  By  A.  C.  Baurett,  A.M.,  Caius 
College.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Fcap. 
8vo.     53. 

An  HiSToracAL  and  Explanatory  Treatise  on 
THE  Book  of  Common  Pkayer.  By  W.  G.  Humphry, 
B.D.    Fifth  Edition,  revised.    Fcap.  8vo.     43.  6d. 

Music.    By  H.  C.  Banister,  Professor  of  Harmony 

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Elements  of  Algebra.     By  the  Kev.  C.  Elsee,  ]\L  A. 

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J.  lUNI).    Ninth  Edition,  with  Questions,  is  ti'i. 

A  Progressive  Course  of  Examples  in  Arithmetic. 

With  Answers.  By  tlie  Uev.  JAMES  WATSON.  M.A.,  of  Corpus 
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Elements  of  Al.cjebra.  By  the  Rev.  J.  Hind.  Sixth 

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TRIGONOMETRY. 

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Shrewsbury  School.    2s. 

Trigonometry  required  for  the  Additional  Subjects 

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M.A.,  Pembroke  College.    Crown  Svo.    3*.  Gd. 

Elementary    Trigonometry.       By   T.  P.    Hudson, 

M.A.,  Fellow  of  Trinity  College.    '6s.  6(J. 

Elements  of  Plane    and   Spherical   Trigonometry. 

By  the  Key.  J.  HIND.    Fifth  Edition.    12mo.    6s. 

Solutions  of  the  Trigonometrical  Problems  proposed 

at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  from  1829  to  1846.  By  THOMAS 
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3*.  6(1. 

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A  Treatise  on  Statics.     By  the  Rev.  S.  Earnshaw, 

MA.     Fuurtli  Edition.    8vo.    10». 

Problems  in  illustration  of  the  Principles  of  Theo- 
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GEOMETRY,   CONIC   SECTIONS,  &c. 
Exercises   on    Euclid   and    in    Modern    Geometry, 

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8  MATHEMATICAL   TEXT  BOOKS. 

Elementary  Analytical  Geometry  for  Schools  and 

Beginners.  By  T.  G  VYVYAN.  Fellow  of  Gon^-ille  and  Caius  Collet'e, 
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Analijtieal  Geomefrv  of  Two  Dimensions.  Bv  the  Rev.  W.  ALLEN 
WHITWORTH,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  Queen's  College, 
Liverpool,  and  late  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  Svo.  lU*. 


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Geometrical  Conic  Sections.     By  W.  H.  Besaxt, 

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The  Solutions  of  Geometrical  Problems,  chiefly  in 

Plane  Co-ordinate  Geometry,  proposed  at  St  John's  College,  from  Dec. 
1830  to  Dec.  1846,  with  an  Appendi.x  contaioing  several  General  Pro])er- 
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Coordinate  Geometry.    By  W.  WALTON,  M.A.     Sro.    16s. 

Elementary  Treatise  on   Solid  Geometry.     By  W. 

S.  ALDIS.'m.A.    Second  Edilion,  revised.    Svo.    8*. 


DIFFERENTIAL  AND  INTEGRAL  CALCULUS. 

An  Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Diiferential  Calcu- 
lus.   By  W.  U.  MILLER,  M.A.   Third  Edition.    8vo.    6s. 

Treatise    on    the   Differential   Calculus.      By   "W. 

WALTON,  M.A.    Svo.    10».  «5d. 


MATHEMATICAL  TEXT  BOOKS.  9 

ASTRONOMY. 

An   Introduction   to   riaiie  Astronomy.     For  tlie 

Uso  of   ColleRes  and   Sclionls.      liy   P.    T.  MAIN,  *M.A.,  FcUow    of 
Bt  John's  Colle),'e.    Second  Edition,  witli  additions.     <U. 

rracticiil    and    S[)herical    Astronomy   for   the   nse 

chictly  nf  Students  in  the  Universities.    By  the  Kev.  R.  MAIN,  M.A., 
Kadciitfo  Observer,  Oxford.    8vo.     lis. 

Elementary    Chapters    on    Astronomy    from    the 

"Astrononiie   Physique"   of   Biot.     By  H.  GOODWIN,  D.D.  Bishop 
of  Carlisle.    8vo.    Zt.  M. 


An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Elli))tic  Functions.   By 

A.  CAYLEY,  Sadlcrian  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  University  of 

Cambridge.    154\ 

Notes    on    the    Princij)les   of   Pure    and    Applied 

Calculation  :  and  Applications  of  Mathematical  Principles  to  Tlieories 
of  the  Pliysical  Forces.  By  the  Kev.  J.  CIIALLIS,  M.A.,  F.H.S., 
F.R.A.8.,  Plumian  Professor  of  Astronomy  juid  Experimental  Pliilo- 
Bopliv  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  anil  i'ellow  of  Trinity  College. 
8vo.  '15^. 

An  Essay  on  the  Mathematical  Principles  of  Phy- 
sics, with  reference  to  the  Study  of  T'hysical  Science  by  Candidates  for 
Matlieniatical  Uonouis  in  the  "University  of  Cambridge.  Bv  the  Rev. 
JAMES  (MlALlilS,  M.A.,  K.U.S.,  F.H.A.S.,  IMumian  Professor  of  As- 
trononiy  nnd  Kx|ieriinental  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
and  Eeilow  of  Trinity  College.    Svo.  5*. 

Pemaiks  on  the  Cambridge  Mathematical  Studies 

and  their  Relation  to  Modern  Science.  By  the  Rev.  JAMES  CUALLIS. 
8vo.    'is.  Gd. 

Lectures  on  Practical  Astronomy.      By  the  Rev. 

JAMES  CII.VLLIS.  [Preparing. 

Choice  and  Chance.  By  William  AllenWhitworth, 

M.A.,  Fellow  of  St  John's.    Second  Edition,  enlarged.    Crown  8vo.    6s. 

A  Chai)ter  on  Fresnel's  Theory  of  Double  Eefrac- 

tion.    By  W.  S.  ALOIS,  M.A.    8vo.    2s. 

Notes   on   Pioulettes  and  Glissettes.     By  "W.  H. 

BESANT,  M.A..  Lecturer  and  late  Fellow  of  St  John's  College.  Cam- 
bridge.   Svo.    3i'.  6J. 

A  Treatise  on  Dynamics  of  a  Particle.     By  "W".  H. 

BES.VNT.  [Prepariiig. 

Elementary    Course    of    ]\Iatheraatics.      Designed 

principally  for  Students  of  tlio  University  of  Cambridge.  By  H. 
GO01)\VIN,  D.I).,  Bishop  of  Carlisle.  Sixth  Edition,  revised  and  en- 
larged by  P.  T.  MAIN.M.A.,  Fellow  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
Svo.    liSs. 

Mensuration.  By  B.  T.  Moore,  Fellow  of  Pembroke 

College.    With  numerous  E.xamplc3.    Fcap.  Svo.    5t. 


10  MA.THEMATICAL   TEXT   BOOKS. 

Newton's  Principia :  first  three  Sections  with  Ap- 
pendix, and  the  Ninth  and  Eleventh  Sections  By  J.  H.  EVANS,  M.A. 
St  Juhus  College.    Edited  by  P.  T.  MAIN,  M.A.    Fcap.  8vo.    4s. 

Problems  and  Examples,  adapted  to  the  "  Elemen- 
tary Course  of  Jfatliematics."  By  H.  GOODWIN,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Car- 
lisle. Third  Edition,  re\ised,  with  Additional  Ex.amples  in  Conic  Sec- 
tions and  Newton.  By  THOMAS  G.  VYVi'AN,  M.A.,  Fellow  ot  Gon- 
ville  and  Caius  College,    ^vo,    5s. 

Solutions  of  Goodwin's  Collection  of  Problems  and 

Examples.  By  W.  W.  HUTT,  M.A.,  late  Fellow  of  Gonville  and  Caius 
College.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  By  the  Rev.  T.  G. 
VYVYAN,  M.A.    8vo.    9*. 

Collection  of  Examples  and  Problems  in  Arith- 
metic, Algebra,  Geometry,  Logarithms,  Trigonometry,  Conic  Sections, 
Mechanics.  &c  with  Answers  and  Occasional  Hints.  By  the  Eev. 
A.  WRIGLEY.    Sixth  Edition.    8vo.    8s.  6d. 

A  Companion  to  Wrigley's  Collection  of  Examples 

and  Problems,  being  Illustrations  of  Mathematical  Processes  and 
Methods  of  Solution.  By  J,  PLATTS,  Esq.,  and  the  llev.  A.  WllIGLE  Y , 
M.A.    8vo.    12*. 

Series  of  Figures  Illustrative  of  Geometrical  Optics. 

From  SCni:LLBACH.  By  the  Rev.  W.  B.  HOPKINS.  Plates. 
Folio.    10*.  6d. 

A  Treatise  on  Ciystallograpliy.  By  W.  H.  Miller, 

M.A.    8vo.    U.Gd. 

A  Tract  on  Crystallography,  designed  for  Stu- 
dents in  the  University.  By  W.  H.  Miilkr,  M.A.  Professor  of  Mine- 
ralogy in  the  University  of  Cambridge.    8vo.    5*. 

Geometrical  Optics.    By  W.  S.  Aldis,  M.A.,  Trinity 

College.    Fcap.  8vo.    Ss.  6d. 

An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Optics.  Part  I.  Con- 
taining all  the  requisite  propositions  carried  to  first  Approximations ; 
with  the  construction  of  0|>tic,'\l  Instruments.  Fur  the  use  of  Junior 
University  Students.  By  KICII.MU)  POTTER,  A.M,,  F.C.P.8.,  late 
Fellow  of  Queens'  College,  Cambridge.  Third  Edition,  revised.  9s.  M. 
Part  II.   12.S-.  ea. 

Physical  Optics.     By  Richard  Potter,  ]\r.A.,  late 

Fellow  of  Queens'  College,  Cambridge,  Professor  of  Natural  Pliil<"sonhv 
and  .\8tronomy  in  University  College,  London.  Part  I.  (j.v.  Grf.  Part  IL 
li.Sd. 


The  Greek  Testament:    with   a  critically  revised 

Text :  a  Digest  of  Various  Readings  :  M.irgin.al  References  to  Verbal  and 
Idiomatic  Usage ;  Prolegomena ;  und  a  Critical  and  E.\egetical  Com- 


THEOLOGICAL  WORKS.  31 

mentary.  For  tlio  use  of  Tlicolosjical  Students  and  Ministers.  By 
the  late  lIl'iXllY  ALl'ORD,  ]>.!>.  IK^an  of  Cauteibury. 

Vol.  I.    Seventh  Edition,  containing  the  Four  Gospels.    11.  8». 

Vol.  II.  Sixth  Kdition,  containinu'  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the 
Epistles  tu  the  Konians  and  Corinthians.    1^  is. 

Vol.  III.  Fifth  Edition,  containiMg  the  Epistles  to  the  Oalatians, 
Ephesians.  Philippians,  Colossians,  Thessalouians, — to  Timotheus, 
Titus  and  Philemon.    18«. 

Vol.  IV.  Part  I.  Fourth  Edition,  containing  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, and  the  Catholic  Epistks  of  St  James  and  St  Peter.     18jt. 

Vol.  IV.  Part  II.  Fourth  Edition,  containing  the  Epistlesof  St  John 
and  St  Jude.  and  tlie  Kevelalion.    lis. 

Vol.  IV.  Complete.    11.  12s. 

Codex  Bczpe  CiUitabrigiensis.      Edited  ■vvitli  Prole- 

poniena.  Notes,  and  Facsimiles.  By  F.  II.  SCRIVENER,  M.A.  Small 
•Ito.    2Gs. 

Companion  to   the    Greek    Testament.     Designed 

I'or  the  use  of  Theological  Students  and  the  Upper  Forms  in  Schools. 
By  A.  C.  BARRETT,  M.A..  Caius  College.  Third  Edition,  revised 
and  enlarged.    Fcap.  8vo.    5s. 

Butler's  Three   Sei'mon.s  on   Human   Nature,  and 

Dissertation  on  Virtue.  Edited  hythe  late  W.  WIIEWKLL,  D.l).  With 
a  Preface  and  a  Syllabus  of  the  Work.   Third  Edition.  Fcap.  &vo.  2s.  tid. 

An  Historical  and   Exj^lanatory  Treatise  on  the 

Book  of  Common  Pr.aycr.  By  W.  G.  HUMPHRY,  B.D.  Fifth 
Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.     Fcap.  Svo.    is.  iid. 

Annotations  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Ori- 
ginal and  selected.  Dcsifrned  principally  for  the  use  of  Candidates 
for  the  Ordinary  HA.  Degree.  Students  for  Holy  Orders.  A;c.,  with 
College  and  Senate-House  Examination  Papers.  By  the  Rev.  T.  R. 
MASKEW,  M.A.    Second  Edition,  enlarged.    12rao.   5s. 

Hints  for  some  Impi'ovements  in  the  Authorised 

Version  of  the  New  Testament.  By  the  late  j!  SCHOLEFIELD,  M.A. 
Fourth  Edition.  Fcap.  Svo.   4s. 

A  Plain  Introduction  to  the  Criticism  of  the  New 

Testament.  With  40  facsimiles  from  .Ancient  Manuscripts.  For  the  use 
of  Biblical  Students.  (Containing  also  a  Chapter  on  the  Egviitian  Ver- 
sions, contributed  by  Canon  Liglitfoot.  D.D.  By  F.  H.  S(;ki  VENEU, 
M.A..IiIj.D.  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Second  Edition,  thoroughly 
revised  and  enlarged.    Svo.    16*. 

Six  Lectures  on  the  Text  of  the  New  Testament, 

and  the  MSS.  whidi  contain  it,  chiettv  adilres-^ed  to  those  who  do  not 
read  Creek.  By  Rev.  F.  H.  SCKIVENER,  M.A.,  LL.D.  With  fac- 
similes from  M8.S.     Crown  Svo.    6s. 

The  Apology  of  Tertullian.      With  Engli.sh  Notes 

and  a  Preface,  intended  as  an  Introduction  to  the  Studv  of  Patristical 
and  Ecclesiastical  l.ntinity.  By  II.  A.  W00DH.\M,  LL  1).  Second 
Edition.    Svo.    S.t.  tid. 


12  CLASSICAL  WORKS. 

^scliylns.     Translated    into     Englisli    Prose,    hy 

F.  A.  PALEY,  M.A.,  Editor  of  the  Greek  Text.  Second  Edition, 
revised  and  corrected.    8vo.   7*.  6d. 

.^tna.       Revised,    emended,    and    explained,     by 

H.  A.  J.  MUNRO,  M.A..  FeUow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
8vo.    3s.  6d. 

Aristoplianis  Comoediae  superstites  ciim  deperdita- 

runi  fraifinentis,  additis  argumentis,  adnotatione  critica,  metrorum  de- 
Ecriptione,  onomastico  et  leiico.  By  the  Kev.  Hubert  Holden,  Lli.D., 
late  Fellow  of  Trinity  College.  Cambridge,  Head  Master  of  Ipswich 
School,  and  Classical  Examiner  to  the  University  of  Loudon.  Third 
Edition.  ■ 

Vol.  I.  containing  the  text  expurgated  with  summaries  and  critical 
notes,  also  the  fragments,  ISs. 

The  plays  sold  separately:  Achamenses,  2.«.  Equites,  l.t.Gd.  Nubes, 
Is.Gd.  Vespae,2s.  Pax,  l.t.M.  Aves.  2*.  Lysistrata  et  Thesmophoriazusae, 
3*.    Ranae,  2s.    Ecclesiazusae  et  Plutus,  3s. 

Vol.  II.  Onomasticon  Aristophanevm  contincns  indicxjm  geogra- 
phicvm  et  liistoricvm,  5s.  6d.  {all  puUished). 

Six    Lectiu'es   Introdnctory   to   the    Philosopliical 

Writings  of  Cicero.  With  some  Explan.itory  Notes  on  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  Academica  and  De  Finibus.  By  T.  W.  Levin.  M.A., 
St  Catharine's  College,  Inter-CoUegiate  Lecturer  on  Logic  and  Moral 
Philosophy.    8vo.  Is.  6d. 

Lucretius.     "Witli  a  literal  Translation  and  Notes 

Critical  and  Explanatory,  by  the  Rev.  H.  A.J.  MUNRO,  M.A.,  Fellovr 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Third  Edition,  revised  throughout. 
2  Vols.  Svo.  Vol.  I.  Text,  \6s.  Vol.  II.  Translation,  6s.  May  be  hart 
Beparateiy. 

Plato.     The  Gorgias,  literally  translated,  with  an 

Introductory  Essay,  containing  a  Summary  of  Hie  Argument.  By 
E.  M.  COPE,  M.A.  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.    Svo.    Is. 

Plato.     The  Philebus,     Translated  with  short  Ex- 
planatory Notes.    By  F.  A.  PALEY,  M.A,    Crown  Svo.    is. 

Plato.     The    Theaetetus.       Translated    with    Ex- 
planatory Notes.    By  F.  A.  PALEY,  M.A.    Crown  Svo.    4s. 

Plautus.     Anlularia,     With   Notes,    Critical    and 

E.xegetical,  and  an  Introduction  on  the  Plautian  Metres  and  Prosody. 
•      By  W.  WAONER,  Ph.  D.    New   and  Revised  Edition.     Crown  Svo. 
is.dd. 

Plautus,  the"Woi'ks  of,  with  English  Notes,  Critical 

and  Exegc'.ical.    By  W.  WAGNER,  Ph.  li.    In  separato  Plays. 

I'reparing. 


CLASSICAL   WORKS.  13 

Propertius.  Verse-Translations  from  Book  V.  With 

a  ItfViscil  Latin  Text,  and  Hriof  Enulisli  Notes.  By  F.  A.  PALEY,  M.A. 
Editor  of  Propertius,  Uvid's  Easti,  kc.    f  cp.  Svo.    'is. 

Quintilian.     The  Tenth  Book.     Latin  Text,  with 

Introduction,  Analysis  and  Commentary.  By  JOHN  E.  B.  MAyOU, 
M.A.,  Fellow  of  St  Johns  College,  Caiubridge.    lO*-. 

Sojjhocles.  Trachinea?.  With  Notes  and  Prolego- 
mena. By  ALFRED  PKETOli,  M.A.,  Fellow  of  St  Catliarine's 
College,  Cambridge.  I'nparing. 

Sophocles.      Stadia    Sophoclea.      Part    I.    being  a 

Critical  Examimition  of  Professor  Lewis  Campbell's  Edition  of  Sophocles . 
By  B.  II.  Ke.n.neuy,  D.D.,  llegius Professor ol  Greek  lu  the  University  of 
Cambridge.    6#. 

Theocritus.     Codicum  manuscriptorum   ope  denno 

recensuit  C.  WOllUSWUllTII,  S.T.P.  Episcopus  Lincolniensis.  Svo.  7*. 

Theocritus.       Translated   into    English    Verse    by 

C.  S.  CALVERLE  Y,  late  Fellow  of  Christ's  College,  Cambridge.   It.  Od. 

Thucydides.      The   History  of  the  Peloponnesian 

War  by  Thucydides.  'With  Notes  and  a  careful  Collation  of  the  two 
Camhridjic  Manuscripts  and  of  the  .Mdine  and  Juntine  Editioiie.  By 
RICHARD  BlULLETO,  M.A.  Fellow  of  Peterhuuse,  Book  I.  Svo. 
6».  (id. 

A    Complete   Greek    Grammar.     For    the    use    of 

Students.    By  the  late  J.  W.  DONALDSON,  D.D.     Third  Edition, 
considerably  enlarged.    Svo.    l&t. 
Written  with  constant  reference  to  the  latest  and  most  esteemed  of 
Greek  Grammars  used  on  the  Continent. 

A    Complete    Latin    Grammar.      For   the    use    of 

students.     By  the  l:ite  J.  W.  DONALDSON,  D.D.     Third  Edition, 

considerably  enlarged,  bvo.  Us. 
Designed  to  serve  as  a  convenient  hand-book  for  those  students  who 
wish  to  acquire  the  haliit  of  writinu'  Latm  :  and  with  this  view  it 
is  furnished  with  an  Antibarliarus,  with  a  full  discussion  of  the  most 
important  synonyms,  and  with  a  variety  of  information  not  generally 
contained  in  works  of  this  description. 

Varronianus.  A  Critical  and  Historical  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Ethnoprapbv  of  Ancient  Italv,  and  to  the  Philological  Study 
of  the  Latin  Language.  By  the  late  J.  W.  DON.\LlJSUN,  D.D. 
Third  Edition,  revised  and  considerably  enlarged.    Svo.    16s. 

Exercises    on    Latin    Accidence,    by   John    E.   B. 

.MAYOR,  M.A..  Fellow  of  St  John's  College.  Second  Edition.  Crowu 
Svo.     U.Hd. 


14  CLASSICAL  "WORKS. 

Exercises  on  Latin  Syntax,  by  J.  E.  B.  Mayor. 

3  Parts,  6d.  each. 

Translations   into    Greek    and    Latin    Yerse.     By 

K.  C.  JEBB,  Fellow  of  Trinity  College  and  Public  Oiator  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge.    Small  ito.    10s.  6d. 

Classical  Scholar.ship  and  Classical  Learning  con- 
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Teaching.  A  Practical  Essav  on  Liberal  Education.  By  the  late  J.^Y. 
DONALDSON,  D.D.    Crown  8vo.    5s. 

Translations    into    Enp;lisli  and  Latin.     By  C.   S. 

CALVERLE5r,  late  Fellow  of  Christ's  College,  Cambridge.  'Small  8vo. 

Foliornm  Silviila.    Part  tlie  first.     Being  Passages 

for  Translation  into  Latin  EleL;inc  and  Heroic  Verse.  Edited  with 
Notes  by  the  Rev.  HUBERT  HOLUEN.  LL.D.,  Head  Master  of 
Ipswich  School.  Late  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  Classical 
E.xaminer  in  the  University  of  London.  Eighth  Edition,  Post  6\o. 
Is.  tiii. 

Foliornm  Silvula.     Part  the  second.     Being  Select 

Passages  for  Translation  into  Latin  Lvric  and  Comic  Iambic  Verse. 
Arranged  and  edited  by  the  Rev.  Dr  HOLDEN.  Third  Edition. 
Post  bvo.    S«. 

Foliornm  Silvnla.     Part  the  third.     Being  Select 

Passages  for  Translation  into  Greek  Verse.  Edited  with  Notes  by 
the  Rev.  Dr  IIOLDEN.    Third  Edition.    PostSvo.    8*. 

Folia  Silvnloe,  sive  Eclogse  Poetarum  Anglicorum 

in  Latinum  et  Gra?cum  conversae  quas  disposuit  HUBEIITU8 
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Foliornm    Centuriae.     Being   Select    Passages    for 

Translation  into  Latin  and  Greek  Prose.  Arranged  and  edited  by 
the  Rev.  Dr  HOLDEN.    Fifth  Edition.   PostSvo.     8*. 

Greek  Yerse  Composition,  for  the  nse  of  Public 

Schools  and  Private  Students.  Being  a  revised  edition  of  the  Greek 
Verses  of  Shrewsbury  School.  By  the  Rev.  GEORGE  PUESTON, 
Fellow  of  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge.    Small  8vo.    it.  6d. 

Sertvim  Carthusianum   Floribus  trinm   Sseculorum 

Contextum.  Cura  GIM>IELMI  IIAIG  BROWN,  Scholae  Carthu»iau* 
Axcliididaucali.    8vu.  lit. 


MISCELLANEOUS  WORKS.  15 

Mvsse  Etonenses   sive  Carminvm  Etonre  Condito- 

rvm  Delcctvs.  Series  Nnvii,  Tonids  DvosC'ompIectens.  8vo.  15x.  Kdidit 
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with  a  Postscript.    By  II.  A.  J.  Mukbo,  Fellow  of  Trinity  College.    1*. 


A    Manual  of  the   Roman    Civil  Law,    aiTanged 

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WKLL.  LiL.U.  Pesigiied  for  tbe  use  of  Students  in  the  Universities  and 
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The  Mathematical  and  other  Writings  of  ROBERT 

LESLIE  ELLIS,  M.A..  late  Fellow  of  Trinitv  College.  Cambridge. 
Edited  bv  WILLIAM  'WALTON,  M.A.,  Trinitv  College,  with  a 
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bent of  St  Michael's.  Cambridge,  sometime  Principal  of  the  English 
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President  of  Queens'  College.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
8vo.  7*.  6d. 


Sketch  of  a  Course  of  English  Reading,  with  Speci- 
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Kov  J.  lUwsos  LuMBT,  B.D.,  Fellow  of  St  Catharine's  College,  Cam- 
bridge.   !»■. 


Fc}).  8vo.  Qs,  6c7. 

Cfte  ^tutieurs?  6uitie  to  tfte  2Hnibers!itp 
of  Cambridge* 

Revised  and  partly  re-written. 

Contents. 

Introductiox,  by  the  Rev.  R.  B.  Somerset,  M.A. 

University  Expenses,  by  the  Rev.  H.  Latham,  M.A, 

The  Mathematical  Tripos,  by  W.  H.  Besant,  M.A. 

The  Classical  Tripos,  by  the  Rev.  R.  Burn,  M.A. 

The  Moral  Sciences  Tripos,  by  the  Rev.  J.  B. 
Pearson,  M.A. 

The  Xatural  Sciences  Tripos,  by  G.  D.  Liveing,  M.A., 
Professor  of  Chemistry. 

On  the  Study  of  Law,  by  E.  C.  Clark,  Regius  Pro- 
fessor of  Laws. 

1>egrees  in  Medicine  and  Surgery,  by  G.  M, 
Humphry,  M.D.  Professor  of  Anatomy. 

On  Preparation  for  the  Theological  Examinations, 
by  B.  F.  Westcott,  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity. 

The  Ordinary  (or  Poll)  Degree,  by  the  Rev,  J.  R, 

LUMBY,  B.D. 

University  Local  Examinations,  by  the  Rev.  G.  F, 
Browne,  M,A. 

The  Oriental  Triposes,  by  E.  H,  Palmer,  M.A., 
Lord  Ahnoiier's  Professor  of  Arabic. 

The  Historical  Tripos,  by  B.  E.  Hammond,  M.A, 

Xon-Collegiate  Students,  by  the  Rev.  R.  B.  Somer- 
set, M.A, 

Detailed  Account  of  the  Several  Colleges. 


Graduati  Cantabrigienses:    sive  Catalogus  cxhi- 

bens  iiomina  eorum  Quos  .ib  anno  Academico  Adniissioiium  MDCCC 
usque  ad  dtciiiuiiii  diem  Oetobiis  MDCCCLXXIl  n'lidu  (luocunque 
ornavit  Academia  Cantabrigicnsis,  c  libris  subscriptii'iuim  dosuuiirtus. 
Cura  llENiuci  IticnAiins  Luabd,  A.M.,  CulL  Ss.  Triii.  ^ucii  atque 
Acattemiae  Registrarii.    Svo.  10*. 

CAMBRIDGE:  DEIGIITON,  BELL,  AND    CO. 
LONDON:   GEORGE   BELL  AND   SONS. 

CAMBUIUUU  :  F&INTBU  AT  TUB  UMIVEESIXY  l>BKa8. 


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